tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-636728004614508582024-03-13T09:31:52.725-07:00Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, Autonomic Nervous System, Central Nervous SystemPharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, Autonomic Nervous System, Central Nervous SystemAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.comBlogger27125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-15126391456223008472014-10-22T23:04:00.000-07:002016-01-16T00:07:42.598-08:00AFLATOXINS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://www.farmgateblog.com/media/made/media/uploads/Aflatoxin_450_338.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.farmgateblog.com/media/made/media/uploads/Aflatoxin_450_338.JPG" height="150" width="200" /></a><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Aflatoxins are the toxic metabolities of toxigenic fungi <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aspergillus flavus </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. parasiticus</i>. These moulds invade and
grow on all sorts of stored feed ingredients and organic matters and produce
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variety of grains and nuts, pea nut is the most important one. Cotton see meal,
cotton seed cake, maize corns, com</span><span style="color: #a19f89; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">-</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">meals</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">silages, wheat</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">barley</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">oats</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">rice and other grains or cereal products
are invaded b</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">y </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">these fungal
toxins</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Several aflatoxin
fractions have been isolated and differentiated from one another by their
fluorescence under ultraviolet, RF values on thin layer chromatography and structural
identification and synthesis. Aflatoxins which fluoresce blue under ultraviolet
light are termed as BI and B</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2 </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">while others
which are dihydroderivatives </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">of B<sub>1</sub> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and B</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and
fluoresce green are designated as G<sub>1</sub> and </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">G</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><i><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></i><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Hydroxylated metabolites of B,
and B</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2 </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">aflatoxins are excreted in milk
and are termed as M</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">I </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and M</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Human exposure occurs on consumption of
aflatoxins from the mycotoxins- infested feed stuffs as well as meat and milk
of animals consuming toxigenic fungi contaminated feeds</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Out of the four main
aflatoxins</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">aflatoxin B</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(AFB</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1</span></sub><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">) is most important because of its toxicity
and high concentration in the contaminated feeds</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">B</span><sub><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and G</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">are present in very less concentrations</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">The order of toxicity is: B<sub>1</sub></span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">G<sub>1</sub></span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">B</span><sub><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">G</span><sub><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">These toxins are relatively heat resistant
and not soluble in water</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">The melting
points for B</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">I</span></sub><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, B</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2 </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">' G<sub>I</sub>
and </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">G</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">aflatoxins
are 269</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">°, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">238</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">°</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, 245</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">° </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and 239</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">°</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">respectively</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Even the toxigenic fungi or toxins are not
destroyed by milling of the grains</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Aflatoxins are a group of
polycyclic</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">unsaturated</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">substituted coumarin derivatives with
highly reactive bifuran nucleus on one side and a pentenone (B toxin) or a six
membered lactone </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(G - </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">toxin) ring on the other side as shown in Fig. 8</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1.</span></div>
<div class="Style" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3d4b3f; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">Presence of additional o</span><span style="color: #637065; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">x</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">ygen in the AFG compounds results in reduction of their activity by a
factor of 2 while unsaturated compounds are 4-5 times more potent compared to
dihydro derivatives</span><span style="color: #637065; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">The structure of B
toxin resembles closely with the structure of pyrrozolidone which has got basic
carcinogenic activity. Aflatoxins are potent mutagens</span><span style="color: #637065; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">carcinogens</span><span style="color: #637065; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">teratogens and liver damaging agents</span><span style="color: #637065; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Mechanism of toxicity:</span></b><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> Majority of the aflatoxins
ingested in feed are physically bound to ruminal contents and as little </span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">as 2</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">-5</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">% </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">reach the intestines</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Aflatoxin B</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">I </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">in excess of 100 </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">m</span></span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">g</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">/</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE;">kg </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">of feed is consid</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">e</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">red to be toxic to cattle</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Aflatoxins are rapidly absorbed from the
intestine and bound to blood proteins</span><span style="color: #79857c; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Liver removes most of the toxins from the
blood stream</span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">AFB<sub>1</sub>
is primarily metabolized by a microsomal cytochrome P</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">-</span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">450 dependent mixed function oxidase system
in the liver and other organs to AFB<sub>1</sub> -2,3 epoxide mainly, which is
a highly reactive intermediate. Other metabolites of AFB<sub>1</sub> are </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Q<sub>1</sub></span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">P<sub>1</sub></span><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">B</span><sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2</span></sub><span style="color: #637065; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">and aflatoxicol</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span><span style="color: #3d4b3f; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.5pt; mso-bidi-language: HE; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Epoxides are chiefly detoxified by
glutathione </span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-25750309043382303922014-10-22T22:55:00.002-07:002016-01-16T00:01:11.792-08:00PRESCRIPTION WRITING<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
prescription is one of the most important therapeutic transactions between
physician and patient. The art of prescription writing is an ancient
inheritance. The ancients started their prescription with an appeal to the gods
for its success. The ancient symbol, Rx, signifying the appeal, was established
centuries ago and has been carried down to the present time. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Many
ancient prescriptions were noted for their multiple ingredients and complexity
of preparation. The importance of the prescription and the need for complete
understanding and accuracy made it imperative that a universal and standard
language be employed. Thus, Latin was adopted, and its use was continued until
approximately a generation ago. Present-day prescription practices lead, for
the most part, to prescriptions containing a single ingredient, written in
English, with doses given in the metric system. The ancient "Rx" and
the Latin "Signatura," abbreviated as "Sig.," are all that
remain of the ancient art of the prescription. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;">Drug use is a complex process and
there are many drug related challenges at various levels, involving prescriber,
pharmacists and patients. While medication misadventure can occur any where in
the health care system from prescriber to dispenser to administration and
finally to patient use, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To avoid undesirable and/or serious
effects on the patient, both physician and pharmacist must render the highest
of professional services. Accurate diagnosis; proper selection of medication,
dosage form and route of administration; proper size and timing of dose;
precise dispensing; accurate labeling; and correct packaging all must be
provided. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt;"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Types of Drugs</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prescriptioned/Legend
Drugs</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: These drugs may not be dispensed
by a pharmacist without a prescription from a physician, osteopath, dentist,
etc. Federal and State drugs are "legend." Labels on these
medications carries the legend: "Caution! Federal law prohibits dispensing
without a prescription." </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Controlled
Drugs</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: In addition to requiring a
prescription, these drugs require additional safeguards for storage. Refills
are also limited. Both State and Federal government agencies promulgate
regulations regarding these drugs. The Federal agency is the Drug Enforcement
Administration and the State agency is the Division of Narcotics and Dangerous
Drugs of DHHR.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Over-the-Counter
(OTC) Drugs</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: These drugs do not require a
prescription. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Form of the Written Prescription</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A
prescription consists of the superscription, the inscription, the subscription,
the signa, and the name of the prescriber.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Superscription</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
date when the prescription order is written; the name, address and age of the
patient; and the symbol Rx (an abbreviation for "recipe," the Latin
for "take thou." </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Inscription</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
body of the prescription, containing the name and amount or strength of each
ingredient. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Subscription</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
directions to the pharmacist, usually consisting of a short sentence such as:
"make a solution," "mix and place into 10 capsules," or
"dispense 10 tablets." </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Signatura</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">From
the Latin "signa," meaning "write," "make," or
"label," this sections contains the directions to the patient. These
should always be written in English; however, physicians continue to insert
Latin abbreviations, e.g. "1 cap t.i.d. pc," which the pharmacist
translates into English, "take one capsule three times daily after
meals." Since the pharmacist always writes the label in English, the use
of such abbreviations or symbols should be discouraged. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
instruction, "take as directed," is not satisfactory and should be avoided.
The directions to the patient should include a reminder of the intended purpose
of the medication by including such phrases as "for pain," "for
relief of headache," or "to relieve itching".</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Labeling</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">When
the physician wants his patient to know the name of the drug, the box on the
prescription form marked "label" should be checked. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Refills</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
physician should designate the number of refills he wishes the patient to have.
</span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #3333ff; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Proprietary vs. Non-Proprietary ("Generic")
Prescriptions</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In
recent years, some hospitals and private physicians are indicating on the
prescription their willingness or desire that the pharmacist dispense a
non-proprietary or "generic-named" preparation instead of the trade
name item written on the prescription. Some have a box on the prescription
designated "N.P.P." In this way, the pharmacist can use a form of the
drug which may be less expensive to the patient. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
amount to be dispensed should be clearly stated and should be that needed by
the patient. Excessive amounts should never be dispensed, as it is not only
expensive to the patient, but may lead to accumulation of medicines in the
home, which later can cause harm to the patient or members of his family. It is
far better to have several refills of a prescription than to have an excessive
amount prescribed at one time. </span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-65513775062100724112014-10-22T08:02:00.001-07:002014-10-22T08:14:11.167-07:00THE IMPORTANCE OF DOSE AND THE DOSE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;">
<div style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/proxy/AVvXsEjAvBqXgrg3KihGsxf-kvr7IJRllp9vITsomxJzZwS_9MDf4Yk-ZavmqdO1CuDBCLlskedCLMgLzKuQXpOyk71iT_b7j1wsrl8YeGUqrEy506-hFUdxCa7KDeRapZtm2LwWkOeOYc7Wjk1fdmKYLQ=" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://i.ytimg.com/vi/1aEDBC5RzD8/hqdefault.jpg" height="240" style="text-align: left;" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It is probably safe to say
that among lay individuals there exists considerable confusion between the terms
poisonous and toxic. If asked, most lay individuals would probably define a
toxic substance using the same definition that one would apply to highly
poisonous chemicals, that is, chemicals capable of producing a serious injury
or death quickly and at very low doses. However, this is not a particularly
useful definition because all chemicals may induce some type of adverse effect
at some dose, so all chemicals may be described as toxic. As we have defined
toxicants (toxic chemicals) as agents capable of producing an adverse effect in
a biological system, a reasonable question for one to ask becomes “Which group
of chemicals do we consider to be toxic?” or “Which chemicals do we consider
safe?” The short answer to both questions, of course, is all chemicals; for
even relatively safe chemicals can become toxic if the dose is high enough, and
even potent, highly toxic chemicals may be used safely if exposure is kept low
enough. As toxicology evolved from the study of just those substances or
practices that were poisonous, dangerous, or unsafe, and instead became a more
general study of the adverse effects of all chemicals, the conditions under
which chemicals express toxicity became as important as, if not more important
than, the kind of adverse effect produced. The importance of understanding the
dose at which a chemical becomes toxic (harmful) was recognized centuries ago by
Paracelsus (1493–1541), who essentially stated this concept as <b>“All substances are poisons; there is none
which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”</b>
In a sense this statement serves to emphasize the second function of
toxicology, or risk assessment, as it indicates that concern for a substance’s
toxicity is a function of one’s exposure to it. Thus, the evaluation of those
circumstances and conditions under which an adverse effect can be produced is
key to considering whether the exposure is safe or hazardous. All chemicals are
toxic at some dose and may produce harm if the exposure is sufficient, but all
chemicals produce their harm (toxicities) under prescribed conditions of dose
or usage. Consequently, another way of viewing all chemicals is that provided
by Emil Mrak, who said <b>“There are no
harmless substances, only harmless ways of using substances.” </b>These two
statements serve to remind us that describing a chemical exposure as being
either harmless or hazardous is a function of the magnitude of the exposure
(dose), not the types of toxicities that a chemical might be capable of
producing at some dose. For example, vitamins, which we consciously take to
improve our health and well-being, continue to rank as a major cause of
accidental poisoning among children, and essentially all the types of
toxicities that we associate with the term “hazardous chemicals” may be
produced by many of the prescription medicines in use today. Because all
chemicals are toxic at some dose, what judgments determine their use? To answer
this, one must first understand the use of the dose–response relationship
because this provides the basis for estimating the safe exposure level for a
chemical. A dose–response relationship is said to exist when changes in dose
produce consistent, nonrandom changes in effect, either in the magnitude of
effect or in the percent of individuals responding at a particular level of
effect. For example, the number of animals dying increases as the dose of
strychnine is increased, or with therapeutic agents the number of patients
recovering from an infection increases as the dosage is increased. In other
instances, the severity of the response seen in each animal increases with an
increase in dose once the threshold for toxicity has been exceeded.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpGfwPslakKk8w6BmPu1kmIW80WuFL4cXZnJpD8Q_L1n6uqvU-zguyR1KuvNa1p-qoPo9ReDcHuK5di0jojzMFajvvUHszBHHqn5lIQ8mLhpOrWLtjnf5M6IOiwQFVjeUpU_3BqPlAu6M/s1600/18.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="132" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpGfwPslakKk8w6BmPu1kmIW80WuFL4cXZnJpD8Q_L1n6uqvU-zguyR1KuvNa1p-qoPo9ReDcHuK5di0jojzMFajvvUHszBHHqn5lIQ8mLhpOrWLtjnf5M6IOiwQFVjeUpU_3BqPlAu6M/s200/18.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Birth control is a common concern for women and men. While women have many options when choosing a birth control method, men have fewer options.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Men have five birth control options:</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; list-style: none; margin: 5px 10px 15px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li class="first" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.plannedparenthood.org/images/bullet_article.gif); background-position: 0px 9px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: medium none; margin: 5px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 10px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/abstinence-4215.htm" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: black;">abstinence</span></a></li>
<li style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.plannedparenthood.org/images/bullet_article.gif); background-position: 0px 9px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: medium none; margin: 5px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 10px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/condom-10187.htm" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: black;">condoms</span></a></li>
<li style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.plannedparenthood.org/images/bullet_article.gif); background-position: 0px 9px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: medium none; margin: 5px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 10px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/outercourse-4371.htm" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: black;">outercourse</span></a></li>
<li style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.plannedparenthood.org/images/bullet_article.gif); background-position: 0px 9px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: medium none; margin: 5px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 10px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/vasectomy-4249.htm" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: black;">vasectomy</span></a></li>
<li class="last" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-image: url(http://www.plannedparenthood.org/images/bullet_article.gif); background-position: 0px 9px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: medium none; margin: 5px 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 10px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/withdrawal-pull-out-method-4218.htm" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: black;">withdrawal</span></a></li>
</ul>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Men can also prevent pregnancy by practicing fertility awareness-based methods with their partners.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
If a woman is using a birth control method, her partner can still use condoms and/or withdrawal. This makes pregnancy even less likely. For example, if a woman is on the pill, her partner can use a condom. Using both methods at once makes the chance of pregnancy even lower than using just one method. And using the condom reduces the risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Our goal at Planned Parenthood is to give you up-to-date, clear information that helps you better understand your birth control options. We hope these pages give you the facts and tools you need.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 20px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
Staff at your local Planned Parenthood health center can also help. They can talk with you and help you get the birth control that’s right for you.</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-86419065657983127532013-10-19T00:22:00.000-07:002013-10-19T00:22:37.165-07:00Download free Android games: Fruits'n Tails<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<span style="background-color: #f2f2f2; font-family: Arial;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: #f2f2f2; font-family: Arial;"><span style="color: grey; font-size: 11px;">Looking for free Android game? Don't want to spend more money buying full versions? We can help you! At Mob.org you can find thousands of new games. Apk files are very easy to install, just a few seconds and you will enjoy the game. All content is ordered in categories: gambling, arcade, action, rpg and many more. Just select model of your tablet or phone (e.g. Samsung Galaxy Note, Motorola Droid, HTC Desire etc.) in the right panel, and our system will select you the most appropriate files. If you are searching for Android tablet games, it will be more convenient to sort files by OS version. And remember, totally free mobile content is only at Mob.org!</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #f2f2f2; font-family: Arial;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBN8VIVn0FOYtwAMEQRf5TuUjZDz65_zaZcevy_-T-nWDZIVVdYnYYdPEvM0OPfRaLMNG-yaQKtcP37xmpAXTvdYhVv8FcP2Wg6OcVKvH5qAwGzQfeWzH7Js3TLmeU5YbrR713YfFJ1xM/s1600/14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: grey; float: left; font-size: 11px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBN8VIVn0FOYtwAMEQRf5TuUjZDz65_zaZcevy_-T-nWDZIVVdYnYYdPEvM0OPfRaLMNG-yaQKtcP37xmpAXTvdYhVv8FcP2Wg6OcVKvH5qAwGzQfeWzH7Js3TLmeU5YbrR713YfFJ1xM/s200/14.jpg" width="120" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgjCEgNSzcXo6rUt1fRP1MqJj1enC3tZkBMItqEPhkzVKiKZU6yvUqfip6sGaUN1xxg1M7qmFHcia-qv-TXrIe5xdu90xdXiPC2Or964mVToT1m1UfGIRcTM6sgpTz83l8cOcy04BdjmA/s1600/15.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgjCEgNSzcXo6rUt1fRP1MqJj1enC3tZkBMItqEPhkzVKiKZU6yvUqfip6sGaUN1xxg1M7qmFHcia-qv-TXrIe5xdu90xdXiPC2Or964mVToT1m1UfGIRcTM6sgpTz83l8cOcy04BdjmA/s200/15.jpg" width="120" /></a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPgXw6cmVTXEe00FJmDLTbEk0m-XsG0sZPEuLYH6lwhCPyDvovYPCdGU36m7YMBq5o_B8txl1TSdE6x9OgAsSrX3zxmDiBUoKCQdIIEgFYgdblTMqj-Lrt6L-1IBloKV74OcKBn5uh7ys/s1600/16.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPgXw6cmVTXEe00FJmDLTbEk0m-XsG0sZPEuLYH6lwhCPyDvovYPCdGU36m7YMBq5o_B8txl1TSdE6x9OgAsSrX3zxmDiBUoKCQdIIEgFYgdblTMqj-Lrt6L-1IBloKV74OcKBn5uh7ys/s200/16.jpg" width="120" /></a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht577LLumHfos8dN6sV14D9cT7Y4pEyxbAKm0Wh-Ep_00IVCoJ_IVRvAf2KO4A6En5BX1D59k_4YJUFojdDzOOLQWRG9bfA6b6AfLvCxC7BeKIQwhaays2h8mkfgHdR4uCoPgZ62V55ng/s1600/17.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht577LLumHfos8dN6sV14D9cT7Y4pEyxbAKm0Wh-Ep_00IVCoJ_IVRvAf2KO4A6En5BX1D59k_4YJUFojdDzOOLQWRG9bfA6b6AfLvCxC7BeKIQwhaays2h8mkfgHdR4uCoPgZ62V55ng/s200/17.jpg" width="120" /></a><a href="http://android.mob.org/game/fruitsn_tails.html" style="color: grey; font-size: 11px;" target="_blank"><br /></a><span style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="http://android.mob.org/game/fruitsn_tails.html" target="_blank"><b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Download</span></b></a></span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-23062102452247618202013-08-20T22:23:00.001-07:002013-08-20T22:23:37.639-07:00PHARMACOKINETICS!!!!!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Phar</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">macokinetics
is the branch of pharmacology in which we study the absorption, distribution
metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drug molecules. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Once
the drug is administered through one of several available routes, four
pharmacokinetic properties determine the speed of onset of drug action, the
intensity of the drug`s effect, and the duration of drug action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /><script type="text/javascript">
ch_client = "draadil";
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<script src="http://scripts.chitika.net/eminimalls/amm.js" type="text/javascript">
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<b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">ABSORPTION</span></b></div>
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<b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Absorption
is the transfer of a drug from its site of administration to the bloodstream
with no change via one of several mechanisms. The rate and efficiency of
absorption depend on both factors in the environment where the drug is absorbed
and the drugs chemical characteristics and route of administration. The extent
of absorption is determined with <b>bioavailability</b>.
It is the amount of an administered drug that becomes available for
pharmacological activity after the absorption in the target tissue.</span> <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">For IV delivery, absorption is
absolute. Drug delivery by other routes may result in only partial absorption
and, thus, lower bioavailability.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A. Mechanisms of
absorption of drugs from the GI tract<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Depending
on their chemical properties, drugs may be absorbed from the GI tract by
passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, or endocytosis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">a. Passive diffusion:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;"> </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The driving force for
passive absorption of a drug is the concentration gradient across a membrane
separating two body compartments. In other words, the drug moves from a region
of high concentration to one of lower concentration. Passive diffusion does not
involve a carrier, is not saturable, and shows a low structural specificity.
The vast majority of drugs gain access to the body by this mechanism.
Water-soluble drugs penetrate the cell membrane through aqueous channels or
pores, whereas lipid-soluble drugs readily move across most biologic membranes
due to their solubility in the membrane lipid bilayers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">b. Facilitated
diffusion:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;"> </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Other agents can enter the cell through specialized
transmembrane carrier proteins that facilitate the passage of large molecules.
These carrier proteins undergo conformational changes, allowing the passage of
drugs or endogenous molecules into the interior of cells and moving them from
an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This process is
known as facilitated diffusion. It does not require energy, can be saturated,
and may be inhibited by compounds that compete for the carrier.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">c. Active transport:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This mode of drug
entry also involves specific carrier proteins that span the membrane. A few
drugs that closely resemble the structure of naturally occurring metabolites
are actively transported across cell membranes using these specific carrier
proteins. Energy-dependent active transport is driven by the hydrolysis of adenosine
triphosphate. It is capable of moving drugs against a concentration gradient,
from a region of low drug concentration to one of higher drug concentration.
The process shows saturation kinetics for the carrier, much in the same way
that an enzyme-catalyzed reaction shows a maximal velocity at high substrate
levels where all the active sites are filled with substrate. Active transport
systems are selective and may be competitively inhibited by other cotransported
substances.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">d. Endocytosis and
exocytosis:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These types of drug delivery systems transport drugs of
exceptionally large size across the cell membrane.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">DISTRIBUTION <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
distribution refers to the Reversible Transfer of a Drug between the Blood and
the Extra Vascular fluids and tissues of the body (for example, fat, muscle,
and brain tissue). Distribution is a Passive Process, for which the driving
force is the concentration gradient between the blood and Extra vascular
tissues.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
Process occurs by the Diffusion of Free Drug until equilibrium is established.
As the Pharmacological action of a drug depends upon its concentration at the
site of action, so distribution plays a significant role in the Onset,
Intensity, and Duration of Action.</span><span style="color: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">The extent of distribution is measured </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">by <b>Volume of Distribution (Vd)</b>. It is a hypothetical volume of body
fluid that would be required to dissolve the total amount of drug needed to
achieve the same concentration as that found in the blood. Distribution of a
drug is not uniform throughout the body because different tissues receive the
drug from plasma at different rates and to different extent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">METABOLISM </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
kidney cannot efficiently eliminate lipophilic drugs that readily cross cell
membranes and are reabsorbed in the distal convoluted<b> </b>tubules. Therefore, lipid-soluble agents must first be metabolized
into<b> </b>more polar (hydrophilic)
substances in the liver using two general sets<b> </b>of reactions, called Phase I and Phase II reactions.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Phase I:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Phase I reactions
convert lipophilic molecules into more polar molecules by introducing or
unmasking a polar functional group, such as –OH or –NH2. Phase I metabolism may
increase, decrease, or leave unaltered the drugs pharmacologic activity.
Reactions include oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Phase II:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This phase consists
of conjugation reactions. If the metabolite from Phase I metabolism is
sufficiently polar, it can be excreted by the kidneys. However, many Phase I
metabolites are too lipophilic to be retained in the kidney tubules. A
subsequent conjugation reaction with an endogenous substrate, such as
glucuronic acid, sulfuric acid, acetic acid, or an amino acid, results in
polar, usually more water-soluble compounds that are most often therapeutically
inactive. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">ELIMINATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Elimination
is the irreversible loss of the hydrophilic or polar drug, or food molecules
from the body. Elimination of drugs from the body requires the agents to be
sufficiently polar for efficient excretion. Removal of a drug from the body
occurs via a number of routes, Kidny, liver, and lungs, the most important
being through the kidney into the urine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<b><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> </span></b></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-39444689443635942342013-08-19T20:07:00.000-07:002013-08-19T20:07:34.465-07:00PHARMACODYNAMICS !!!!!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqEJY1aCSh0qwXzE-xvQVARKnt47OFzr-PjtLE19kHB8SbJA-bW_ZYdRdHYyCJIy-tQ7NeQcjLZtlxlZFIpHiiyfJe5u73qVRX27ConbzcCKW-aGRz0x8rnSO4Ggu2CQuubZepQHMFt3E/s1600/receptors.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="143" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqEJY1aCSh0qwXzE-xvQVARKnt47OFzr-PjtLE19kHB8SbJA-bW_ZYdRdHYyCJIy-tQ7NeQcjLZtlxlZFIpHiiyfJe5u73qVRX27ConbzcCKW-aGRz0x8rnSO4Ggu2CQuubZepQHMFt3E/s200/receptors.bmp" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pharmacodynamics describes the actions
of a drug on the body and the influence of drug concentrations on the magnitude
of the response. Most drugs exert their effects, both beneficial and harmful,
by interacting with receptors (that is, specialized target macromolecules)
present on the cell surface or within the cell. The drug–receptor complex
initiates alterations in biochemical and/or molecular activity of a cell by a
process called signal transduction. There are two types of drugs actions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">1-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
action mediated by the receptor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">2-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
action not mediated by the receptor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">DRUG ACTION MEDIATED BY THE RECEPTORS</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The drug–receptor
complex: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cells have
different types of receptors, each of which is specific for<b> </b>a particular ligand and produces a unique response. The heart, for<b> </b>example, contains membrane receptors
that bind and respond to epinephrine<b> </b>or
norepinephrine as well as muscarinic receptors specific<b> </b>for acetylcholine. These receptors dynamically interact to control
the<b> </b>hearts vital functions. The
magnitude of the response is proportional<b>
</b>to the number of drug–receptor complexes:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug + Receptor </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug–receptor
complex </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Biologic
effect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Major receptor families<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pharmacology
defines a receptor as any biologic molecule to which a drug binds and produces
a measurable response. Thus, enzymes, nucleic acids, and structural proteins
can be considered to be pharmacologic receptors. However, the richest sources
of therapeutically exploitable pharmacologic receptors are proteins that are
responsible for transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Transmembrane ligand-gated ion
channels: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The first
receptor family comprises ligand-gated ion channels that are responsible for
regulation of the flow of ions across cell membranes. The activity of these
channels is regulated by the binding of a ligand to the channel. Response to
these receptors is very rapid, enduring for only a few milliseconds. These
receptors mediate diverse functions, including neurotransmission, cardiac
conduction, and muscle contraction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Transmembrane G protein–coupled
receptors:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> A second
family of receptors consists of G protein–coupled receptors. These receptors
comprise a single helical peptide that has seven membrane spanning regions. The
extracellular domain of this receptor usually contains the ligand-binding area
(a few ligands interact within the receptor transmembrane domain). Intracellularly,
these receptors are linked to a G protein (Gs, Gi, and others) having three
subunits, an alpha subunit that binds guanosine triphosphate (GTP), and a beta
and a gamma subunits. Binding of the appropriate ligand to the extracellular
region of the receptor activates the G protein so that GTP replaces guanosine
diphosphate (GDP) on the α subunit. Dissociation of the G protein occurs, and
both the α-GTP subunit and the β subunit subsequently interact with other
cellular effectors, usually an enzyme, a protein, or an ion channel. These
effectors then activate second messengers that are responsible for further
actions within the cell. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">c.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Enzyme-linked receptors:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A third major family
of receptors consists of a protein that spans the membrane once and may form dimmers
or multi subunit complexes. These receptors also have cytosolic enzyme activity
as an integral component of their structure and function. Binding of a ligand
to an extracellular domain activates or inhibits this cytosolic enzyme
activity. Duration of responses to stimulation of these receptors is on the
order of minutes to hours. Metabolism, growth, and differentiation are
important biological functions controlled by these types of receptors. The most
common enzyme-linked receptors (epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived
growth factor, atrial natriuretic peptide, insulin, and others) are those that
have a tyrosine kinase activity as part of their structure. Typically, upon
binding of the ligand to receptor subunits, the receptor undergoes
conformational changes, converting kinases from their inactive forms to active
forms. The activated receptor autophosphorylates and then phosphorylates
tyrosine residues on specific proteins. The addition of a phosphate group can
substantially modify the three-dimensional structure of the target protein,
thereby acting as a molecular switch.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">d.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intracellular receptors:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The fourth family of
receptors differs considerably from the other three in that the receptor is
entirely intracellular, and, therefore, the ligand must diffuse into the cell
to interact with the receptor. This places constraints on the physical and chemical
properties of the ligand, because it must have sufficient lipid solubility to
be able to move across the target cell membrane. Because these receptor ligands
are lipid soluble, they are transported in the body attached to plasma proteins
such as albumin. The primary targets of these ligand-receptor complexes are
transcription factors. The activation or inactivation of these factors causes
the transcription of DNA into RNA and translation of RNA into an array of
proteins.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">AGONIST<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">An agonist binds to a receptor and
produces a biologic response. An agonist may mimic the response of the
endogenous ligand on the receptor, or it may elicit a different response from
the receptor and its transduction mechanism.</span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Full
agonists: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">If a drug
binds to a receptor and produces a maximal biologic response</span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">that mimics the
response to the endogenous ligand, it is known as a</span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Bold;">
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">full agonist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Partial
agonists: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Partial
agonists have efficacies (intrinsic activities) greater than zero but less than
that of a full agonist.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inverse
agonist</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">:</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: MyriadPro-Regular;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inverse agonists, unlike
full agonists, stabilize the inactive receptor (R not R*) form.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ANTAGONIST<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Antagonists
are drugs that decrease or oppose the actions of another drug or endogenous
ligand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Competitive antagonists:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">If both the
antagonist and the agonist bind to the same site on the receptor, they are said
to be “competitive.” The competitive antagonist will prevent an agonist from
binding to its receptor and maintain the receptor in its inactive
conformational state.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irreversible antagonists:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">An irreversible
antagonist causes a downward shift of the maximum, with no shift of the curve
on the dose axis unless spare receptors are present. The effects of competitive
antagonists can be overcome by adding more agonist. Irreversible antagonists,
by contrast, cannot be overcome by adding more agonist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Functional and chemical
antagonism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">An
antagonist may act at a completely separate receptor, initiating effects that
are functionally opposite those of the agonist. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">DRUG ACTION NOT
MEDIATED BY THE RECEPTOR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
followings are the some specific examples of the drugs whose action are not
mediated by the receptors<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Enzymes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Metabolic analogues (antimetabolite)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chelation of metallic ions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Microcrystal formation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Uncoupling of energy mechanism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Biochemical and biophysical properties
of drugs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Enzyme:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Drugs influencing various enzyme
systems, the anti-cholinesterase’s like neostigmine and organic phosphorus
insecticide ---inhibition of cholinesterase, monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
like phenelzine--- inhibit oxidation of, epinephrine and nor-epinephrine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Metabolic analogues
(antimetabolite): </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These
are<b> </b>usually closely related
chemically to the substrate. For example sulphonamides --- antimetabolites of
para aminobenzoic acid (PABA). PABA is
an intermediate in the bacterial synthesis of folate, are structurally similar
to PABA, and their antibacterial activity is due to their ability to interfere
with the conversion of PABA to folate by the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase.
Thus, bacterial growth is limited through folate deficiency without effect on
human cells.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chelation of metallic
ions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Drugs may
chelate a metallic ion needed for the normal functioning of an enzyme system.
In this way, a parasitic microorganism might be destroyed. The metal ions in
chelate form may become fat-soluble and hence penetrate to tissues where they
would not normally reach. The toxicity
of antibacterial drugs like 8-hydroxyquoinoline oxime depends on the formation
of a copper-oxime complex. Some drugs form readily metal chelates e.g. lead,
antimony, copper and arsenic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Microcrystal formation: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some drugs may form microcrystals with
water or other cellular substance which can then affect cellular function.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Uncoupling of energy
mechanism: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some drugs
effect the intracellular energy relationships of the adenosine phosphate and
the regeneration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by intracellular oxidative
processes without interaction with receptors. Failure of ATP could result in
reduction of cessation of certain energy linked reactions. For example narcotic
effect of barbiturates—uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Biochemical and
biophysical properties of drugs</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">:
These drugs<b> </b>influence any of the
steps involved in the maintenance of normal cellular functions, enhance or
prevent the entrance of substances into the cell. Transport of glucose into
cells is enhanced by insulin permeability of the neuromuscular junction to ions
is increased by acetylcholine<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-20594502205851987772013-08-19T02:35:00.000-07:002013-08-19T02:37:53.728-07:00PREPARATION OF THE ISOTONIC/ HYPERTONIC/HYPOTONIC SOLUTION; A Practical Activity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjemU8M1Xsvsmkdfd6UHqBEbrnpn2CVQRhwACk76YRJwscnphIHpq_vRUQYcUMmuRT5k-QymwCIZmMlakeY17aSyhswzpk3k-4hR0k0Z5RBExIaDpnGSXyyJjPsmNQKsD6VyyJ3X0ICXj0/s1600/isotonic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjemU8M1Xsvsmkdfd6UHqBEbrnpn2CVQRhwACk76YRJwscnphIHpq_vRUQYcUMmuRT5k-QymwCIZmMlakeY17aSyhswzpk3k-4hR0k0Z5RBExIaDpnGSXyyJjPsmNQKsD6VyyJ3X0ICXj0/s200/isotonic.jpg" width="124" /></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">An Isotonic solution has same salt concentration as cells and blood. Isotonic solutions are commonly used as intravenously infused fluids in hospitalized patients. A <b>hypotonic solution</b> is a solution with a lower concentration of solutes. A cell in a hypotonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes than the surrounding solution, causing water to flow into the cell. Too much inflow of water will lead the cell to lyses or lead to a phenomenon known as hemolysis. <b>Hypertonic</b> refers to a higher concentration or has a greater degree of tone or tension. A cell in a hypertonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than its surroundings, leading to a decrease of water in the cell. Water will leave the cell by means of osmosis and cause the cell to crenate. Crenation is a crinkling up process.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Requirements <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Apparatus:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> Weighing balance, beaker, graduated cylinder, pipette, water glass, glass rod (stirrer).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Ingredients:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">For isotonic solution: NaCl= 0.9g and water 100ml q.s<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">For hypertonic solution: NaCl=1.5g and water 100ml q.s<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">For hypotonic solution: NaCl=0.4g and water 100ml q.s<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
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<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Procedure:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Take three beakers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Label these as isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Weight the amount of NaCl and add it to respective beakers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now make up the volume with water up to 100 ml.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Now pour few drops of blood in these three beakers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Check the effect of these three solutions of varying concentration on blood cells.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Result:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The blood cells in isotonic solution remain intact (normal). The blood cells in hypertonic solutions shrink and the blood cells in hypotonic solution, become turgid.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-9648072384399162572013-08-18T23:58:00.000-07:002013-08-19T00:09:36.007-07:00JOB ALERT!!!!!!!Diabetes API Support Chemist<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyiE_gn1foEZ4ZL8pzjNQRKZhO0q89yHoVKjm6v_o62t3-WxNMPrayw8qd_-S-vrRDWot4Wcwh6uN_A8araGpeHPTWoCFEJcS2hFUZr-y5xZW71sCnK_JBEwY3ytzhNlCTj6x8Ut_UMS8/s1600/job+opening1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="167" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyiE_gn1foEZ4ZL8pzjNQRKZhO0q89yHoVKjm6v_o62t3-WxNMPrayw8qd_-S-vrRDWot4Wcwh6uN_A8araGpeHPTWoCFEJcS2hFUZr-y5xZW71sCnK_JBEwY3ytzhNlCTj6x8Ut_UMS8/s200/job+opening1.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span itemprop="description" style="background-color: white;"><br /><b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">DUTIES:</b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"> Research & Development</span><br /><b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">PLACE:</b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"> Denmark - Bagsværd</span></span><br />
<div style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; text-align: justify;">
<b>THE JOB</b></div>
<div style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; text-align: justify;">
DAPI Process Support provides support to DAPI’s production departments (located in Kalundborg) within the areas: process optimization, troubleshooting and transfer of new processes from development to production. We are responsible for the completion of the parameter studies in the development projects. As we support the API production, your job will be to contribute to a continuous stable operations and quality in the running productions. You will, among other things, be working with exciting optimization projects focusing on improving quality-, and yield or limiting costs. Your field of work will be: commenting on deviations, planning and evaluation of experiments, preparation of protocols and reports, preparation and maintenance of SOPs and professional discussions with the production. The position offers good opportunities to be creative and to test exciting optimization proposals in our laboratories. Since the job is mostly self-organized, it is very important that you are able to prioritize work assignments as well as being comfortable in a changing and hectic environment. In this job you can look forward to the possibility of personal as well as professional development.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><br /></span></div>
<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><b>QUALIFICATION</b></b></div>
<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">
</b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">We imagine that you are a trained engineer, Cand. Scient., pharmacist or similar and have several years of experience within protein chemistry, protein purification or similar. Having experience with the processes which are used in DAPI is a plus. As a person you work independently, are able to handle a complex workday and are comfortable with a close and cheerful collaboration with your team and department. You are responsible, flexible, and have the courage and urge to engage in new assignments and stick to them until the job is finished. It is important that you are a good communicator, since you are in daily contact with other chemists, technicians, production employees, project managers, analytical laboratories and others. Beyond this, you are an open and outgoing person. All of these qualifications are necessary for you when you are working with complex problems. A positive mindset will suit our working environment where a good laugh is appreciated even when things are getting hectic.</span></div>
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">
</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Feel free to submit you language in either English or Danish.</span></div>
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">
</span>
<br />
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<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Contact</b><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">For further information, please contact Mineesha Kohli at +45 3075 7616 or </span><a href="http://www.novonordisk-jobs.com/job/Bagsv%C3%A6rd%2c-Denmark-Diabetes-API-Support-Chemist/2790419/?from=email&refid=13957415&utm_source=J2WEmail&source=2&eid=108-201308160234-29728189&locale=en_US" style="font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">PLEASE VISIT</span></a><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">.</span><br />
<br />
<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">Deadline</b><br />
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">2 September 2013.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"></span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-55502980439531722042013-08-19T00:05:00.001-07:002013-08-19T00:09:12.057-07:00JOB ALERT!!!!! Biopharm Cleaning Specialist<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6isDMqV_qsQAid-6GZcNmZ1JObbNS1mb8FGkiLwqQ_EMx9vxdNrkulm6pkE8Y_oI-1AqYeOUTQNHeKOqVR1tMEgHhnrgt5yK6WtCiG5YZYDLJqeXYTSwlsw2_SOw-KdmOKvdbHyerOa0/s1600/job+opening.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6isDMqV_qsQAid-6GZcNmZ1JObbNS1mb8FGkiLwqQ_EMx9vxdNrkulm6pkE8Y_oI-1AqYeOUTQNHeKOqVR1tMEgHhnrgt5yK6WtCiG5YZYDLJqeXYTSwlsw2_SOw-KdmOKvdbHyerOa0/s200/job+opening.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span itemprop="description" style="background-color: white;"><br /><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">DUTIES: Production</span><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">PLACE: Denmark - Gentofte</span><br /><br /><br /><br /><b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">THE JOB</b></span><br />
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Help set direction and solve scientifically challenging cases. Your main objectives will be to manage the cross organisational process group for cleaning with focus on scientifically challenging cases. You will be a key stakeholder in developing, implementing and supporting the cleaning validation strategies for products from late development to production. You will also be involved in cross organisational optimisations and systematic problem solving. You will join the management group of Biopharm API Support but also be responsible for cleaning activities in aseptic production. You will be helping with prioritisation of incoming assignments and setting strategic direction. You can anticipate a wide cooperation with e.g. the production, Quality Assurance, R&D, Regulatory Affairs, analytical departments and project groups.</div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">This job is an opportunity to blend the urge to dive deep into cleaning on the one hand and influence the managerial decision-making on the other hand.</span></div>
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<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><b>REQUIRMENTS</b></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">MSc with vast experience from a pharmaceutical production or R&D function. You hold an MSc in e.g. Civil Engineering or Pharmacy with solid insight into cleaning validation, protein chemistry, protein purification and aseptic production. Your CV mirrors more than 7 years of experience from a pharmaceutical production or R&D function within the protein area. In addition, you have insight into GMP and are familiar with the current industry standards for process validation and regulatory standards for documentation. You have a systematic and structured approach to working with data and sound communication skills in Danish and English, enabling you to document your work meticulously. Besides, you can effortlessly cooperate with colleagues from various backgrounds, and you thrive on leading the way and training your colleagues. You are capable of sharing knowledge at any organisational level, and with your extrovert and proactive attitude you can easily establish a network across the organisation. Finally, you have a keen eye for quality and manage to prioritise your work to meet every deadline.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">At Novo Nordisk we use our skills, dedication and ambition to help people with diabetes and change possibilities in haemophilia. By working with us you will have the opportunity to do the same in a global business environment.</span></div>
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<b style="color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><b>CONTACT</b></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><span style="color: #333333;">For further information, please contact Casper Leuenhagen at +45 3079 4751 or </span><a href="http://www.novonordisk-jobs.com/job/Bagsv%C3%A6rd%2c-Denmark-Diabetes-API-Support-Chemist/2790419/?from=email&refid=13957415&utm_source=J2WEmail&source=2&eid=108-201308160234-29728189&locale=en_US" target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">VISIT</span></a></span></div>
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<span itemprop="description" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Geneva, Verdana, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;">31 August 2013.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #444444; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; font-style: inherit; line-height: 15px;"><span style="font-style: inherit;">Job Segments:</span> <span itemprop="industry">Engineer, Pharmacy, Special Medicine, Pharmaceutical, Law, Engineering, Healthcare, Science, Legal</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-81030089805629991402013-08-18T05:28:00.000-07:002013-08-18T23:51:50.103-07:00JOB ALERT!!!!!!!! ANALYTICAL CHEMIST REQUIRED<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYVjtB6VVxkepauZb-6p4Dwv26W1cOMpeaW1h7MT5tkHp1h4nd9Rf1PIZdqSngx_wo7C_1USrNCuQ4o8IPuN_8rV5aPrkR7si-4KXTsQaG7WpddsQ5iZjk6o7UfAZynyWmKW8THQ79blM/s1600/job+opening.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYVjtB6VVxkepauZb-6p4Dwv26W1cOMpeaW1h7MT5tkHp1h4nd9Rf1PIZdqSngx_wo7C_1USrNCuQ4o8IPuN_8rV5aPrkR7si-4KXTsQaG7WpddsQ5iZjk6o7UfAZynyWmKW8THQ79blM/s200/job+opening.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span itemprop="description" style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #333333;">COUNTRY REQUIRED</span><br /><span style="color: #333333;">Denmark - Kalundborg</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Do you want to manage and improve a variety of raw material analyses in a highly professional QC laboratory? In that case you should apply for the new position as Chemist in QC Raw Materials. If you are as ambitious as we are, you can look forward to an exciting job in an environment where we seek to be best in class in everything we do.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #333333;">About the department</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #333333;">Your new department, QC Raw Materials, consists of 51 employees who are located in Bagsværd and Kalundborg. You will join the Analytical team in Kalundborg, which is responsible for the chemical control of raw materials for the production across DAPI and Biopharm API. We cooperate with a variety of functions, including purchase, storage and QA.</span></span></div>
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The job</div>
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You will work closely with the Chemists and Laboratory Technicians in your team to approve the raw materials and thereby enable a continuously high pace in the production. You will be responsible for several analytical methods and for securing that the analytical flow is aligned with our customers’ expectations. Continuous improvements and systematic problem solving by means of LEAN will also be part of your responsibility. You will support the Laboratory Technicians in their daily operations to ensure that the analytical performance and equipment live up to the industry standard. In general, you can foresee different project assignments that enable us to work faster and smarter within the department and across the organisation. This could also be your opportunity to build a strong network within Novo Nordisk while developing your skills further.</div>
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<b>Qualifications</b></div>
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You hold an MSc in Pharmacy, Engineering or another relevant field within the natural sciences. You may have supplemented your degree with 0-2 years of experience from a similar job in which you have gained knowledge of working with GMP in a laboratory environment. You are analytical and result-oriented. You never compromise on quality, however, you are able to round off and finish your tasks on time and take pride in delivering on your milestones in order to proceed to the next assignment with enthusiasm and energy. . You work well independently, although it also motivates you to cooperate with colleagues and stakeholders across functions and departments. You contribute actively to the team and you motivate your colleagues with a positive, forthcoming attitude. Lastly, you must have fluency in written and spoken Danish and English.</div>
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At Novo Nordisk, you will join a patient-centred culture of talented professionals. We respect individuality and empower you to make the most of your potential.Novo Nordisk in Kalundborg is a city within the city. The area is situated a good hour from Copenhagen and covers 1,350,000 m2, including a private roadgrid. We produce some 50 % of the insulin in the world. We are at the front edge of the development within technology, systems, methods and processes. If you are our new colleague, we can guarantee opportunities that you will have a hard time finding anywhere else.</div>
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At Novo Nordisk, we strive for excellence. As a world leader in diabetes care and a major player in haemostasis management, growth hormone therapy and hormone replacement therapy, we offer our employees opportunities for continuous growth.</div>
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<b>Contact</b></div>
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For further information, please contact Birgitte Langer Eriksen at +45 3075 5068 or Henrik B. Schultz på +45 3075 5080.</div>
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<b>Deadline</b></div>
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25 August 2013.<br />
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For further detail <a href="http://www.novonordisk-jobs.com/job/Kalundborg%2c-Denmark-Analytical-chemist/2793895/?from=email&refid=13957415&utm_source=J2WEmail&source=2&eid=108-201308160234-29728189&locale=en_US" target="_blank">PLEASE VISIT</a><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-36009049257841309882013-08-18T22:28:00.001-07:002013-08-18T22:30:50.064-07:00PREPARATION OF COUGH MIXTURE FOR YOUR PETS (Saline Electuary); A Practical Activity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRNZl2jhIvXT5dUmNh8l9Rh0aLcNoMjDARDD6U3248Ueayl6251YMNmGlmdxRFbKs_B-GS8XEWZyHmRVZqgQM2KXcO6gbCr7Ai27EBrg-2slIOGpbCVJG8HJI3f2kN3kr-IMckIONMmYI/s1600/coughing-dog.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="175" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRNZl2jhIvXT5dUmNh8l9Rh0aLcNoMjDARDD6U3248Ueayl6251YMNmGlmdxRFbKs_B-GS8XEWZyHmRVZqgQM2KXcO6gbCr7Ai27EBrg-2slIOGpbCVJG8HJI3f2kN3kr-IMckIONMmYI/s200/coughing-dog.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
word <i>saline electuary</i> is taken from
two different languages. The word <i>saline</i>
is probably taken from latin language related to <i>salinum,</i> meaning a salt cellar (cellar means basement) or <i>salinae,</i> means salt pits (pits means
contents).The word <i>electuary</i> have two
origins.<span style="background: white;"> One is from Late Latin<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>electuarium,</i> means<i> </i>paste for oral use but<i> s</i>ome</span>
<span style="background: white;">people say that it is taken from Greek<span class="apple-converted-space"> word <i>ekleikton</i></span>, from </span></span><tt><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">ekleikhein</span></i></tt><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to lick up<span class="apple-converted-space">. </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It
is a herbal product made up of herbs and some salts, dissolved in the sugar,
honey or gur which is administered orally and used as a bronchodilator in some
respiratory problems like Asthmas, COPD, and Allergic respiratory reactions or
a herbal medical paste made up of dried herbs, salts and some palatable
substances which is administered per os for the problems of upper respiratory
tract like allergy, COPD, asthma etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Requirements<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Weighing balance, required ingredients, Pastel and Mortar,
piece of Paper for each ingredient and Tray for mixing of the ingredients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Preparation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Aniseed<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">188g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Bronchitis,
sinusitis, decongestant, increase secretion, antiseptic, antispasmodic,
carminative, expectorant and stomachic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.7pt;" valign="top" width="50">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Linseed<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">188g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Elimination
of secretion in respiratory tract, bronchitis, cold, constipation, protects
the irritant skin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.7pt;" valign="top" width="50">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Liquorice<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">188g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Expectorant
by increasing the secretion, soothing (gently calm), lubrication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.7pt;" valign="top" width="50">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Ammonium
chloride<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">125g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Irritation
of the respiratory tract, increase secretion and cough up the sputum (expectorant).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.7pt;" valign="top" width="50">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Molasses</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">As
required<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Rich
source of energy. Increase palatability. Increase consistency.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 37.7pt;" valign="top" width="50">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 93.75pt;" valign="top" width="125">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Soy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.0in;" valign="top" width="96">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">188g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.05pt;" valign="top" width="281">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Increase
secretions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">DOSE:</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">FOR CATTLE,BUFFALO:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
The normal dose is 100g per animal per day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">FOR DOG,CAT,SHEEP, GOAT:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The normal dose is 25g per animal per day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-6483014531874506722013-08-18T01:56:00.001-07:002013-08-18T01:56:39.574-07:00DRUG DOSAGE FORMS; Solutions<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">SOLUTIONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A
solution is a homogeneous mixture that is prepared by dissolving a solid,
liquid, or a gas, in another liquid and represent a group of preparation in
which the molecule of the solute or a dissolved substance are dispersed among
those of the solvent. Most solution are unsaturated with the solute, in other
words, the concentration of the solute in the solution is below its solubility
limit. The strength of the pharmaceutical solutions is usually expressed in the
terms of % strength, although for very dilute preparations, expression of ratio
strength is some time used. The term % when used without qualification (as with
w/v, v/v, or w/w) means % weight-in-volume for solutions or suspensions of
solids in liquids; % weight-in-volume for solution of gases in the liquid; %
volume-in-volume for solutions of liquids in liquids; and weight-in-weight for
mixture of solids and semisolids. Solutions are of following types<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Aqueous solutions:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These
are the solutions in water. For example Aromatic Water, Aqueous Acids,
Solutions, Douches, Enemas, Gargles, Mouthwashes, Juices, Nasal Solutions, and
Irrigation Solutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(a)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Aromatic
waters: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The USP
defines the aromatic water as clear, saturated aqueous solution of volatile
oils or other aromatic or volatile substances. The odors and tastes are
similar, respectively, to those of the drugs or volatile substances from which
they are prepared. They are used principally as flavored or perfumed vehicles.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(b)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Aqueous
acids:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Inorganic
acids and certain organic acids, although of minor significance as therapeutic
agents, are of great importance in pharmaceutical manufacturing and analysis.
This is especially true for acetic, hydrochloric, and nitric acids. Many of the
more inorganic acids are available commercially in the form of concentrated
aqueous solutions. The %age of the strength varies from one acid to the other
and depends on the solubility and stability of the solute in water and on the
manufacturing processes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(c)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Diluted
acids: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Diluted acids
in USP are aqueous solutions of acids of a suitable strength (usually 10%w/v
but diluted Acetic Acid is 6% w/v) for internal administration or for the
manufacturing of other preparations. The strength of the official undiluted
acids is expressed in %age in w/w, where as the strength of the official
diluted acids are expressed in % in volume (w/v).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(d)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Douches:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The douches are aqueous solutions
directed against a part or into the cavity of the body. It functions as a
cleansing or antiseptic agent. E.g., an eye douche, used to remove the foreign
particles and discharges from the eyes. Douches are often dispensed in the form
of powders with direction for dissolving in a specified quantity of water or
the solution may be prepared by the pharmacist. Douches are not official class
of preparations but several substances in the compendia frequently are employed
as such in weak solutions. Vaginal douche are common example and used for
cleansing and hygienic purpose. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(e)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Enemas:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Enema preparations are rectal
injections employed to evacuate the bowl, influencing the general system by the
absorption, or to affect a local disease. The latter two are called retention
enemas. They may posses’ anthelmentic, nutritive, sedative, or simulative
properties or they may contain radiopaque substances for roentgen graphic
examination of the lower bowel. Sodium chloride, Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium monohydrate
phosphate, Glycerin, Docusate Potassium, and light Mineral oil are used in
enemas to evacuate the bowel. Evacuation enemas are generally given at body
temperature in quantities of 1 to 2 pt injected slowly with an injection.
Retention enemas are to be retained in the intestine and should not be used in
larger quantities than 150 ml for an adult. Usually the volume is considered
smaller such as a few ml and the term used for these enemas is microenemas.
Valporic acid, Metronidazole and Endomethacin have been formulated as
microenemas for the purpose of absorption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(f)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Gargles:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These are aqueous solutions
frequently containing antiseptic, antibiotics, and/or anesthetics used for
treating the pharynx and nasophyrynx by forcing air from the lungs through the
gargles that is held in the throat; subsequently, the gargle is expectorated.
Many gargles must be diluted before the use. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(g)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Mouthwashes:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Mouthwashes are aqueous solutions
often in concentrated form containing one or more active ingredients and
excipients. They are used by swishing the liquids in the mouth cavity.
Mouthwashes are used for two purposes, therapeutic (plaque, gingivitis, dental
caries, and stomatitis) and cosmetic (bad breath by adding antimicrobial and/or
flavoring agents) purposes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(h)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Juices:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> A juice is made from the freshly ripe
fruit, is aqueous in character, and is used in making syrups that are employed
as vehicles. The freshly expressed
juices is preserved in Benzoic acid and allow to stand in room temperature for
several days, until the pectin that naturally are present are destroyed by
enzymatic action, as indicated by the filtered juices yielding a clear solution
with alcohol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(i)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Nasal
solutions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Nasal solutions
are usually aqueous solutions designed to be administered to the nasal passage
in the drops or sprays. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(j)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Otic
solutions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These
solutions are occasionally are referred as ear or aural preparations. Other
oral preparation includes suspension and ointments for topical application in
the ear. Ear preparations are usually placed in the ear canals by drops or in
small amounts for the removal of excessive cerumen (ear wax) or for the
treatment of ear infections, inflammations or pain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(k)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irrigation
solutions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Irrigation
solutions are sterile, non pyrogenic solutions used to wash or bath surgical
incisions, wounds, or body tissues. Because they come in contact with the
exposed tissues, they must meet the astringent USP requirements for sterility,
total solids, and bacterial endotoxins. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(l)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Syrups:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Syrups are
concentrated, viscous, aqueous solutions of sugar or a sugar substituted with
or without flavors and medical substances. When purified water alone is used in
making the solution of sucrose, the preparation is known as syrup or simple
syrup if the sucrose concentration is 85 %. In addition to sucrose, certain other
polyols, such as Glycerin or Sorbitol, may be added to retard the
crystallization of sucrose or to increase the solubility of added
ingredients. Alcohol often is included
as a preservative and also as a solvent for flavors; further resistance to
microbial attack can be enhanced by incorporating antimicrobial agents. When
the aqueous preparation contains some additional medicinal substances, the
syrup is called medicated syrup. Flavored syrups are usually not medicated, but
rather contain some aromatic or pleasantly flavored substances and are intended
to be used as a vehicle or flavor for prescription, such as Acacia, Cherry,
Cocoa, Orange, and Raspberry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Nonaqueous solutions:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pharmaceutical
preparations, and, in particular, those intended for internal use, rarely
contain more than one minor quantities of the organic solvents that are common
to the manufacturing or the analytical operations. Products of commerce for
internal use may contain solvents such as ethanol, glycerin, propylene glycol,
certain oils, and liquid paraffin. Preparation intended for external use may
contain solvent in addition to those just mentioned, namely isopropyl alcohol,
polyethylene glycol, various others, and certain esters. The various types of
non aqueous solution are mentioned below.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(a)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Collodions: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These
are liquid preparations containing pyroxylin, partially nitrated cellulose, in
a mixture of ethyl ethers and ethanol. They are applied to the skin by mean of
a soft brush or other suitable applicator and, when the ether and ethanol have
evaporated, leave a film of pyroxylin on the surface. Salicylic acid collodion
USP, contain 10% w/v of salicylic acid in flexible collodion USP and use as a
keratolytic agent in the treatment of corn and warts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(b)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Elixirs:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Elixirs are clear, pleasantly
flavored, sweetened hydro alcoholic liquids intended for oral use. The main
ingredients in elixirs are ethanol and water but glycerin, sorbitol,
polypropylene glycol, flavoring agents, preservatives, and syrups often are
used in the preparation of the final products. The solvents are often used to
increase the solubility of the drug in the dosage form. Elixirs are more fluid
than syrups, due to the use of less viscous ingredients such as alcohol and the
minimal use of viscosity improving agents such as sucrose. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(c)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Glycerins:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Glycerin’s or glycerites are
solutions are mixtures of medicinal substances in not less than 50% by weight
of glycerin. Most of the glycerins are
mostly viscous and some have jelly like consistency. Glycerin is suitable
pharmaceutical solvent forming permanent and concentrated not otherwise
obtainable. Glycerins are hygroscopic and should be stored in tightly closed
containers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(d)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inhalations:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Inhalation preparations are so used
or designed that the drug is carried to the respiratory tract of the patient.
The vapors or mist reaches the affected area and give prompt relieve from the symptoms
of bronchial nasal congestion. Another group of products, also known as
meter-dose-inhalers (MDIs) are propellant–driving drug suspension or solutions
in liquefied gas propellant with or without a co-solvent and are intending for
delivering meter dose of the drugs to the respiratory tract.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(e)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Liniments:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Liniments are alcoholic or oil based solutions or emulsions containing
therapeutic agents intended for external use. These preparations may be liquids
or semisolids that are rubbed onto the affected area; because of this, they
were once called embrocations. These are usually applied with fractions and
rubbing of the skin, the oil or soap base for ease of the application and
massage. Alcoholic liniments are generally used for their rubefacient,
counterirritant, mildly astringent, and penetrating effects. Depending on their
ingredients liniments works solely as a protective coating. Other liniments
contain antipruritics, astringents, emollients, or analgesics and are
classified on the basis of their active ingredients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(f)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oleovitamins:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Oleovitamins are fish liver oils
diluted with edible vegetable oils or emulsions of the indicated vitamins or
vitamin concentrates (usually vitamin A and D) in the fish liver oil. These
vitamins are unstable in the presence of rancid oil; therefore these
preparations should be stored in small, tight containers, preferably under
vacuum or under the atmosphere of an inert gas, protected from light and air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 32.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(g)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Spiritis:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Spirits are sometime called essences,
are alcoholic or hydro alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. Like the
aromatic water, the active ingredient in the spiritis may be the solid, liquid,
or gas. Generally the alcoholic concentration of spiritis is rather high,
usually over 65%. Because of the greater solubility of the aromatic or volatile
substances in alcohol than in water, spiritis can contain a greater
concentration of this material than the corresponding aromatic water. When mix
with water or aqueous preparation, the volatile substances generally separates
and form a milky preparation. Salts may be precipitated from aqueous solution
by the addition of spiritis. Spiritis may be used pharmaceutically as a
flavoring agent and medicinally for the therapeutic value of the aromatic
solutes. The spiritis still listed in the USP/NF are aromatic ammonia spirit,
camphor spirit, compound orange spirit and peppermint spirit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-19425629146026317372013-08-17T22:47:00.000-07:002013-08-17T22:55:42.862-07:00DRUG DOSAGE FORMS; Capsules, Tablets and Injections<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm8-u9TKl6rK-kMFtMrmoC2QDTPSr370yxn0HPx8cee6wKkxSgr_EhH3u0La9vhXAAav-PEmcviW_OX6HK6d_YblO8PWO11N2g5lhRUp4Zc2HEpXuH13P2RhrZhEi_8Fa2JWJUuuuyp-E/s1600/capsules.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="124" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm8-u9TKl6rK-kMFtMrmoC2QDTPSr370yxn0HPx8cee6wKkxSgr_EhH3u0La9vhXAAav-PEmcviW_OX6HK6d_YblO8PWO11N2g5lhRUp4Zc2HEpXuH13P2RhrZhEi_8Fa2JWJUuuuyp-E/s200/capsules.jpg" width="200" /></a><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">CAPSULES</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In
the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, encapsulation
refers to a range of techniques used to enclose medicines in a relatively
stable shell known as a capsule,
allowing them to be taken orally. Capsules are solid dosage form containing one
or more medicinal substances enclosed with in a small shell or container
prepared from suitable form of gelatin. They are of two types<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Hard gelatin capsules:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The basic empty capsule shells are
made up of the mixture of the gelatin, sugar and water. They are physically
hard. The capsules are made in two parts by dipping metal pins in the gelling
agent solution. Before use, the two halves are separated, the capsule is filled
with powder or more normally pellets made by the process of Extrusion &
Spheronization (either by placing a compressed slug of powder into one half of
the capsule, or by filling one half of the capsule with loose powder) and the
other half of the capsule is pressed on. With the compressed slug method,
weight varies less between capsules. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Soft gelatin capsules: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These are prepared from shells of
gelatin to which glycerin or polyhydric alcohols such as sorbitol are added to
render the gelatin elastic or plastic like. Soft gelatin capsule can be an
effective delivery system for oral drugs, especially poorly soluble drugs. This
is because the fill can contain liquid ingredients that help increase
solubility or permeability of the drug across the membranes in the body. Liquid
ingredients are difficult to include in any other solid dosage form such as a
tablet. Soft gelatin capsules are also highly suited to potent drugs, where the
highly reproducible filling process helps ensure each Soft gelatin capsule has
the same drug content, and because the operators are not exposed to any drug
dust during the manufacturing process. Advantages are that they are easily
swallowed due to tasteless shell. Volatile drug substances and hygroscopic
drugs are better suited in soft gelatin capsules.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvuIsU-QwxvnYKwRTRSAem8o1o6cZTsLP-oPMrnpWzK2-Zd_Ivq0cbmEVYRcUxLiGIC04FAGxRefqDWbbGyWja4r1dlyqj0Cl7tpP5m2x1qmAwgx-Og9WPdE-_e2YEzVZ7irYwBS9xYuU/s1600/tablet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvuIsU-QwxvnYKwRTRSAem8o1o6cZTsLP-oPMrnpWzK2-Zd_Ivq0cbmEVYRcUxLiGIC04FAGxRefqDWbbGyWja4r1dlyqj0Cl7tpP5m2x1qmAwgx-Og9WPdE-_e2YEzVZ7irYwBS9xYuU/s200/tablet.jpg" width="200" /></a><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">TABLETS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Tablet
is a mixture of active substance and excipient, usually in powder form, pressed
or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can include
diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to
ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the
digestive tract; sweeteners or flavors to enhance taste; and pigments to make
the tablets visually attractive. A polymer coating is often applied to make the
tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the
active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its
shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.<b> </b>The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use
today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage
forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to
deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but
can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally.<b> </b>Medicinal tablets were originally made
in the shape of a disk of whatever color their components determined, but are
now made in many shapes and colors to help distinguish different medicines.
Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them
to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters
to about a centimeter. Some tablets are in the shape of capsules, and are
called "caplets". Medicinal tablets and capsules are often called
pills. A <b>pill</b> is a small, round, solid pharmaceutical oral dosage form
that was in use before the advent of tablets and capsules. Pills were made by
mixing the active ingredients with an excipient such as glucose syrup in a
mortar and pestle to form a paste, then rolling the mass into a long
cylindrical shape and dividing it into equal portions, which were then rolled
into balls, and often coated with sugar to make them more palatable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Types of tablet <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Immediate release
tablets:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The dosage
form is designed to release the drug substance immediately after ingestion. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Delayed release:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The drug substance is not released
until a physical event has occurred, e.g., time elapsed, change in pit of
intestinal fluids, change in gut flora.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chewable tablets:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These are strong, hard tablets to
give good mouth feel. For example Lozenges Strong. These tablets are prepared
for local delivery to mouth or throat often prepared by a candy moulding
process.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Buccal tablets:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These are designed to be placed in buccal
cavity of mouth for rapid action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Sublingual tablets:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These are placed under the tongue for
rapid dissolution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Effervescent tablets:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> These are taken in water; the tablet
forms an effervescent, often pleasant-tasting drink. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages of tablets are<b> </b>Cheapest to manufactured and easy to
pack, product identification is sample, and specialized profile products such
as enteric coated or delayed release product are available. Tablets have best
combined properties of chemicals, mechanical and microbiological stabilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">INJECTIONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Injections/injectables
refer to drugs taken via injection. An injection
is an infusion method of putting drug into the body, usually with a hollow
needle and a syringe. These are sterile pyrogen free preparations intended to be
administered parenterally.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">An
ampoule is a small sealed single
dose vial which is used to contain medicine that must be protected from air and
contaminants. They are sealed by melting the thin top with an open flame, and
usually opened by snapping off the neck. The space above the chemical may be
filled with an inert gas before sealing. The walls of glass ampoules are
usually sufficiently strong to be brought into a glovebox without any
difficulty. A multi-dose vial is a vial of liquid medication intended for
parenteral administration that contains more than one dose of medication.
Advantages are, rapid response is obtained and can be used when patient is uncooperative,
or unconscious and when drug is unaffected by other route. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-62352778631568929092013-08-16T07:26:00.000-07:002013-08-16T07:35:08.515-07:00POWDERS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These
are mixtures of finely divided drugs. E.g., Pelvis ginger. Powders are
encountered in almost every aspect of pharmacy, both in industry and in
practice. Drugs and other ingredients, when they occur in the solid state in
the course of being processed into a dosage form, usually are in a more or less
finely divided condition. Although the use of powders as a dosage form has been
declined, the properties and behavior of finely divided solid materials are of
considerable importance in pharmacy.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Historically powders represent one of
the oldest dosage forms.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">They are
natural outgrowth of the attempt to prepare crude drugs and their natural drugs
in more convenient administered form. However, with declining use crude drugs
and increasing use of many highly potent compounds, powders as a dosage form
have been replaced largely by capsules and tablets.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The advantages of the powder are, they
represent a portion of the solid dosage form currently being employed. The advantages are flexibility in compounding
and relatively good chemical stability. The chief disadvantage of powders as a
dosage form are, they are time consuming to pre[pare and they are not well
suited for the dispensing of many unpleasant testing , hygroscopic or
deliquescent drugs. Bulk powders have another serious disadvantage when
compared with divided and individually weighed powder; in accuracy of dosage,
the dose is influenced by many factors, including settling, fluffiness due to
agitation, inaccurate size of the measuring spoon, density of powders,
humidity, and personal judgment. Not only do patients measuring varying amounts
of powders when using the same spoon , but they often select one differing in
size from that specified by the physician.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">There are mainly two categories of
powders. The first one is the divided powders and the second one is the Bulk
powders.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Divided powders:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Divided
powders are dispensed in the form of individual doses and generally are
dispensed in papers, properly folded. They also may be dispensed in metal foil,
small heat-sealed plastic bags, or other containers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bulk powders:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bulk
powders may be classified as Oral powders, Dentifrices, Douche powders, Dusting
powders, Insufflations, and Triturations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(a)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oral
powders: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oral powders
are generally supplied as a finely divided powders or effervescent granules.
The finely divided powders are intended to be suspended or dissolved in water
or mixed with soft foods. Antacids and laxatives are frequently administered in
this form.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(b)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dentifrices:
</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dentifrices are generally
prepared in the form of bulk powders, containing soap or detergent, mild
abrasive, and anticariogenic agent.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(c)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Douche
powders:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Douche
powders are completely soluble and are intended to be dissolved in water prior
to use as an antiseptics or cleansing agents for a body cavity. The most
commonly are intended for vaginal use, although they may be formulated for
nasal, optic or ophthalmic use<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(d)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dusting
powders: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dusting
powders are locally applying non toxic preparation that is intended to have no
systemic action. They are applied as lubricants, protectives, absorbents,
antiseptics, antipruritics, antibromhidrosis, astringents and antiperspirants.
They may be micronized or passed through a NO 80 or 100 sieve.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(e)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Insufflations:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Insufflations are finely divided powders introduced into body cavities,
such as the ear, nose, throat, tooth sockets, and vagina. Insufflator (powder
blowers) is usually employed to administer these products. However, the
difficulty in obtaining a uniform dose has restricted their general use.
Specialized equipment has been developed for the administration of the
micronized powders of relatively potent drugs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">(f)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Triturations:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Triturations are the dilutions of the potent powder drugs, prepare by
intimately mixing them with a suitable diluents in a definite proportion by
weight.<b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-59129501986916476232013-08-15T21:18:00.001-07:002013-08-15T22:28:03.255-07:00ONSET OF DRUGS EFFECT THROUGH DIFFERENT ROUTES; A Practical Activity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqhNHYh01gfaNf-C7ARKYMM0llsucOAvxPNbTgxVLU-t-WNACEUNUw2fXyc_OI1sRgc4I8KkliiD4Q_PHT7jP2tQPp7Dt9d5LZzQjnPTMG2jSZp7befwhV_eKGgpzPqBicEoEvv1jHSFg/s1600/comparision.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqhNHYh01gfaNf-C7ARKYMM0llsucOAvxPNbTgxVLU-t-WNACEUNUw2fXyc_OI1sRgc4I8KkliiD4Q_PHT7jP2tQPp7Dt9d5LZzQjnPTMG2jSZp7befwhV_eKGgpzPqBicEoEvv1jHSFg/s200/comparision.jpg" width="155" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Requirements<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Rabbit, Anesthetic drugs (Diazepam tablets,
Diazepam Injection)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Procedure<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Take four healthy rabbits. Keep them fast for
12 hours. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Administer one rabbit with diazepam tablet at
the dose rate of 2mg/Kg orally by making its solution in distilled water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Administer second rabbit with diazepam
injection intramuscularly at the dose rate of 2mg/Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In third rabbit, administer the diazepam
subcutaneously at the dose rate of 2mg/Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In forth rabbit, administer the diazepam
intravenously at the dose rate of 2mg/Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Then note the time of onset of anesthesia in
all the animals at the dose rate of 2mg/Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /><div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Observations<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: -.05in; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 540px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 21.8pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Route of
Administration<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="8" style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 21.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 328.5pt;" valign="top" width="438">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">
After<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10.3pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">Time<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">1 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">5 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">10 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">20 min<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">30 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">40 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">50min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 10.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt;">60 min.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Oral<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Intramuscular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Subcutaneous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<u><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 76.5pt;" valign="top" width="102">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Intravenous<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .5in;" valign="top" width="48">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">+++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.5pt;" valign="top" width="54">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 12.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60">
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">++<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-45805409309055203292013-08-14T04:17:00.001-07:002013-08-15T05:14:26.084-07:00ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION RELEASE AND ABSORPTION <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyO6izlPWpgXAwLYKKAH1-MWgajIyOcQKyobg9YNf65ibtW7hnp7js1tfdsmeqBwT0GpDrcJf_E5MJIPUKPjdC2kEuhbjEGMJYNACZ8UbnfVBmmYsonPmh3dw9QlRX1StDYu7oWqS2Uho/s1600/oral.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyO6izlPWpgXAwLYKKAH1-MWgajIyOcQKyobg9YNf65ibtW7hnp7js1tfdsmeqBwT0GpDrcJf_E5MJIPUKPjdC2kEuhbjEGMJYNACZ8UbnfVBmmYsonPmh3dw9QlRX1StDYu7oWqS2Uho/s200/oral.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The coated tablet contains a
drug within a core that is covered by a shell, e. g., wax coating, that serves <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. To protect perishable drugs from decomposing.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. To mask a disagreeable taste or odor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.
To facilitate passage on swallowing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.
To permit color coding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Capsules usually consist of
an oblong casing— generally made of gelatin—that contains the drug in powder or
granulated form. In the matrix-type tablet, the drug is embedded in an inert
meshwork, fromwhich it is released by diffusion upon being moistened. In contrast
to solutions, which permit direct absorption of drug (A, track 3), the use of
solid dosage forms initially requires tablets to break up and capsules to open (disintegration),
before the drug can be dissolved (dissolution) and pass through the gastrointestinal
mucosal lining (absorption). Because disintegration of the tablet and
dissolution of the drug take time, absorption will occur mainly in the
intestine (A, track 2). In the case of a solution, absorption already starts in
the stomach (A, track 3). For acid-labile drugs, a coating ofwax or of a
cellulose acetate polymer is used to prevent disintegration of solid dosage
forms in the stomach. Accordingly, disintegration and dissolution will take
place in the duodenum at normal rate (A, track 1) and drug liberation per se is
not retarded. The liberation of drug, and hence the site and time-course of
absorption, are subject to modification by appropriate production methods for
matrix-type tablets, coated tablets, and capsules.
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In the case of the matrix tablet,
this is done by incorporating the drug into a lattice from which it can be
slowly leached out by gastrointestinal fluids. As the matrix tablet undergoes
enteral transit, drug liberation and absorption proceed en route (A, track 4). In
the case of coated tablets, coat thickness can be designed such that release
and absorption of drug occur either in the proximal (A, track 1) or distal (A,
track 5) bowel. Thus, by matching dissolution time with small-bowel transit
time, drug release can be timed to occur in the colon. Drug liberation and,
hence, absorption can also be spread out when the drug is presented in the form
of a granulate consisting of pellets coated with a waxy film of graded thickness.
Depending on film thickness, gradual dissolution occurs during enteral transit,
releasing drug at variable rates for absorption. The principle illustrated for
a capsule can also be applied to tablets. In this case, either drug pellets coated
with films of various thicknesses are compressed into a tablet or the drug is
incorporated into a matrix- type tablet. In contrast to timed-release capsules slow-release
tablets have the advantage of being divisible ad libitum; thus fractions of the
dose contained within the entire tablet may be administered. This kind of retarded
drug release is employed when a rapid rise in blood levels of drug is undesirable,
or when absorption is being slowed in order to prolong the action of drugs that
have a short sojourn in the body.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDGghAEMGkNm2TNriSvCNERAmS5yOpavmTvS3AKxyzGST1XYeCZblFQQ0GYkq7-5xT5JI_Jhh0w1okj5SsB7MvoM-FR2r0LLGQCxeQfF75BiWr0TC64qXjcN4F68puqreasm6FqkHCoew/s1600/oral.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDGghAEMGkNm2TNriSvCNERAmS5yOpavmTvS3AKxyzGST1XYeCZblFQQ0GYkq7-5xT5JI_Jhh0w1okj5SsB7MvoM-FR2r0LLGQCxeQfF75BiWr0TC64qXjcN4F68puqreasm6FqkHCoew/s640/oral.bmp" width="428" /></a></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br /></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-65982974190071796972013-08-15T00:59:00.000-07:002013-08-15T05:12:28.626-07:00ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
administration of a medicine is a common but important clinical procedure. It
is the manner in which a medicine is administered that will determine to some
extent whether or not the patient gains any clinical benefit, and whether they
suffer any adverse effect from their medicines. For example, intravenous (IV)
furosemide administered too quickly can cause deafness; oral penicillin V given
with food will not be well absorbed; over-application of topical steroids will
cause thinning of the skin and may lead to systemic side-effects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Two main
factors determine whether or not a drug will reach its intended site of action
in the body:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">The
bioavailability of the drug<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">How
the drug is given (route of administration). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bioavailability</span></strong></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bioavailability
is the proportion of an administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation
and is therefore available for distribution to the intended site of action. Drugs
that are given by direct IV injection are said to have 100% bioavailability.
Some drugs that are particularly well absorbed by the gastrointestinal mucosa
may have bioavailability comparable to that of an IV dose – for example the
antibiotic ciprofloxacin. Most drugs do not have this availability by the oral
route so the dose given orally is usually higher than that given parenterally. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Routes
of administration</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">There
are various routes of administration, each of which has associated advantages
and disadvantages. All the routes of drug administration need to be understood
in terms of their implications for the effectiveness of the drug therapy and
the patient’s experience of drug treatment. A drug can be given <b>systemically
</b>& <b>locally</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Systemic
routes are divided into:<b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Enteral:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Oral, Sublingual, and Rectal<b> </b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Parenteral:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Intravenous, Intramuscular,
Subcutaneous, Intra-arterial, Intra-articular, Intra-dermal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inhalational</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Topical & local application</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ENTERAL ROUTE OF
ADMINISTRATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Administration
through the gastrointestinal tract is termed enteral or enteric administration.
Enteral administration usually includes oral, rectal administration.
Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral, including
sublingual (under the tongue) and sublabial or buccal (between the cheek and
gums/gingiva), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract
without reaching the intestines. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oral route of drug administration<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This
is the most frequently used route of drug administration and is the most
convenient and economic. Solid dose forms such as tablets and capsules have a
high degree of drug stability and provide accurate dosage. The oral route is
may be problematic because of the unpredictable nature of gastro-intestinal
drug absorption. For example the presence of food in the gastrointestinal tract
may alter the gut pH, gastric motility and emptying time, as well as the rate
and extent of drug absorption. It is the route of choice in human being but it
is avoided in animals because of restraining problems.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8ootyu4bmfqLk7Wh9seo42TjZ1CDEnW1LdyAy_PHONXj0wrDM549m_gl8RBmIktifp3PLmv5I1sWu12qim6r9lQCS3GKeubWWtRhlqeGyEyxmWiUZrry36QfKTOUrbx0eCTKNGO9SytE/s1600/routy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8ootyu4bmfqLk7Wh9seo42TjZ1CDEnW1LdyAy_PHONXj0wrDM549m_gl8RBmIktifp3PLmv5I1sWu12qim6r9lQCS3GKeubWWtRhlqeGyEyxmWiUZrry36QfKTOUrbx0eCTKNGO9SytE/s400/routy.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Safe,
Convenient, Economical.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
absorption is good due to extensive surface area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Easy
to administer in human.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some
drugs have slow absorption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Onset
of drug action is slow.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irritable
and unpalatable drugs cannot be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Not
used in unconscious and uncooperative patients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cannot
use in severe vomiting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some
drugs are destroyed in stomach like insulin, penicillin etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
after absorption are metabolized in liver before reaching the systemic
circulation; this is called FIRST PASS EFFECT. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
absorption affected by intake of food.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Sublingual</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Sublingual</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">,
means 'under the tongue', from Latin, refers to the pharmacological route of
administration by which drugs diffuse into the blood through tissues under the
tongue. When a chemical comes in contact with the mucous membrane beneath the
tongue, it diffuses through it. Because the connective tissue beneath the
epithelium contains a profusion of capillaries, the substance then diffuses
into them and enters the venous circulation. This is not a common route of
administration but it offers rapid absorption into the systemic circulation.
Many dosage forms are designed for sublingual administration, including
cardiovascular drugs, steroids, barbiturates, enzymes, and increasingly,
vitamins and minerals. The
pharmaceutical <span class="itxtrst">industry</span> has formulated and marketed ‘wafer’-based
versions of tablets that dissolve rapidly under the tongue. These are aimed at
particular markets where taking tablets may be problematic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPCTsU35-rywwLeNzVaaMD9fYsyyzeEzt5LjNAG6E2zS6bL8NnIaYjtFHDEupzwoCVXvj0I_kxFQcyy3hiXCm1rKJnSyIsL9MVwimgghRvgG-G_CKeEvu0FrZIdq9aAfDVwEoZHVaiD-s/s1600/sub.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPCTsU35-rywwLeNzVaaMD9fYsyyzeEzt5LjNAG6E2zS6bL8NnIaYjtFHDEupzwoCVXvj0I_kxFQcyy3hiXCm1rKJnSyIsL9MVwimgghRvgG-G_CKeEvu0FrZIdq9aAfDVwEoZHVaiD-s/s1600/sub.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Economical; No specific apparatus or
sterilization is needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Quick termination of undesirable drug
effects by spitting remaining drug.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">First pass effect is avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug absorption and effects are quick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bitter tasting and unpalatable drug.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irritation of oral mucosa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cannot be give to unconscious patient.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Large quantities cannot be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cannot be given in severe vomiting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rectal
administration</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This
is a way of administering drugs into the rectum to be absorbed by the rectum's
blood vessels and into the body's circulatory system which distributes the drug
to the body's organs and various systems, where the drug elicits its effects. A
drug that is administered rectally will in general (depending on the drug) have
a faster onset, higher bioavailability, shorter peak, and shorter duration than
the oral route. This route offers a valuable means of localized drug delivery
into the large bowel, for example the use of rectal steroids in the form of
enemas or suppositories in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
Antiemetics can be administered rectally for nausea and vomiting and
paracetamol can be give to treat patients with pyrexia who are unable to
swallow. Solid and liquid forms of drugs can be given through rectum. Solid
drug given rectally is known as SUPPOSITORY. Liquid drug given rectally is
called ENEMA.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE0ciwNiWUY871v92g8y8TAlGtQyhO3F8ZwK-LVbO0Q4sOY73aECmuqlbLEDqc-1XLu4KEnq3bVsnr-1nb_oZOkkHrmNmNHGORD6NL30dikdqD91qVgVujWVJiznZJMiOiHDCuxVoJkno/s1600/rectal.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE0ciwNiWUY871v92g8y8TAlGtQyhO3F8ZwK-LVbO0Q4sOY73aECmuqlbLEDqc-1XLu4KEnq3bVsnr-1nb_oZOkkHrmNmNHGORD6NL30dikdqD91qVgVujWVJiznZJMiOiHDCuxVoJkno/s1600/rectal.gif" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Used in children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Little first pass effect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Can be given in vomiting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Can be given in unconscious patient.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Higher therapeutic concentrations of
drug are achieved rapidly in rectum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">For rapid evacuation of bowel, usually
during gut sterilization before any surgical or radiological procedure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inconvenient.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug absorption is slow and erratic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irritation or inflammation of rectal
mucosa can occur. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">PARENTERAL </span></strong><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Parenteral
drug administration can be taken literally to mean any non-oral means of drug
administration, but it is generally interpreted as relating to injection
directly into the body, by-passing the skin and mucous membranes. The common
routes of parenteral administration are intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (S/C),
Intravenous (IV), Intracardiac, Intraosseous, Intrathecal, Intraperitoneal,
Intravesical, Intravitreal, Intracavernous injection, intracerebral etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intramuscular injection (IM) </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">It
is the injection of a substance directly into a muscle. In medicine, it is one
of several alternative methods for the administration of medications. It is
used for particular forms of medication that are administered in small amounts.
Depending on the chemical properties of the drug, the medication may either be
absorbed fairly quickly or more gradually.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5cTm9vcZs5V16AmKLg5YgRrlv2PB3xkKuBMDArw5fDRToadBQ4oAR3vTeHKKTHGW4WUfR-dx9bxmQjr2hGYqZdcmdK6deKC16v1xzl-putjiBJOfI4a6GsF1HJYNG1ln__U81AbkgbmA/s1600/im2.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5cTm9vcZs5V16AmKLg5YgRrlv2PB3xkKuBMDArw5fDRToadBQ4oAR3vTeHKKTHGW4WUfR-dx9bxmQjr2hGYqZdcmdK6deKC16v1xzl-putjiBJOfI4a6GsF1HJYNG1ln__U81AbkgbmA/s200/im2.gif" width="99" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjR9P_c9bcVHM-b_6hRoaGHo4mx6n8lKGygTPX0QX_yiIXqFpHWrCbTluT4ojSROdfc5EY71vfcv8Z0_MvP9VBKlKrkW-SpJQfzkpnbG6a3oMLDrdwLh4rKpocqaeJyiZ23j9CZrYHwx38/s1600/im.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjR9P_c9bcVHM-b_6hRoaGHo4mx6n8lKGygTPX0QX_yiIXqFpHWrCbTluT4ojSROdfc5EY71vfcv8Z0_MvP9VBKlKrkW-SpJQfzkpnbG6a3oMLDrdwLh4rKpocqaeJyiZ23j9CZrYHwx38/s200/im.gif" width="189" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieCNVAUQKXLglFU0RjKfbPsCBp-Xclj9ePeTGr3SXPono5UWRkrA_s1mH4D0U7YE6290V4h00O5I9jdDVzfZWnKREpWzqx07k1Hcps2-_tFBz_Ea_x2689uBGod1HtbcDVYShnfkG4rxI/s1600/im12.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="134" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieCNVAUQKXLglFU0RjKfbPsCBp-Xclj9ePeTGr3SXPono5UWRkrA_s1mH4D0U7YE6290V4h00O5I9jdDVzfZWnKREpWzqx07k1Hcps2-_tFBz_Ea_x2689uBGod1HtbcDVYShnfkG4rxI/s200/im12.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rate
of absorption is uniform.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rapid
onset of action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irritant
substances can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
can be given to unconscious patients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Accuracy
of dosage is ensured.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Useful
in emergency situations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">First
pass effect is avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
producing gastric irritation can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
that are not absorbed from G.I.T can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
destroyed by gastric acid can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Small
quantities up to 10 ml of the drug can be given at a time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Local
pain and abscess formation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Technical
person is needed, self-administration is difficult.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Expensive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Danger
of infection, if proper sterilization techniques are not used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chances
of nerve damage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intravenous Injection (IV)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">When
the use of other routes will not allow for an intended therapeutic outcome or goal
of the treatment to be met, then this route is used. Not only is the IV route
inconvenient for the patient and practitioner, but it carries the greatest risk
of any route of drug administration. By administering directly into the
systemic circulation either by direct injection or infusion, the drug is instantaneously
distributed to its sites of action. Such administration is frequently complex
and confusing. It may require dose calculations, dilutions, information to be
gathered on administration rates and compatibilities with other IV solutions,
and the use of programmable infusion devices.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfom1_hlChiWdEu74Pc4lsBC6MBkJhIdjt77Mkr656Jw_w8rmW8OdlSZH3tLYw27E99paOAovYlMtfLWX52RZPpQoaU6yCqG085Rhi0T6t2h-w3krTbVb4a-xw-EZqMsjeEogZCSdkCTQ/s1600/intravenous.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfom1_hlChiWdEu74Pc4lsBC6MBkJhIdjt77Mkr656Jw_w8rmW8OdlSZH3tLYw27E99paOAovYlMtfLWX52RZPpQoaU6yCqG085Rhi0T6t2h-w3krTbVb4a-xw-EZqMsjeEogZCSdkCTQ/s1600/intravenous.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Moreover
the preparation of IV medicines requires the use of an aseptic technique. It is
imperative that to minimize the risk of errors occurring in the administration
of IV medicines that practitioners can demonstrate their competence to practice
safely in this area, and have access to appropriate sources of expert
information and advice<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">No
absorption required, bioavailability is 100%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Desired
blood concentration of drug is achieved quickly and can be maintained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Large
volume of drug can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rapid
onset of action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
can be given in presence of vomiting and diarrhea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Useful
for unconscious patients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Useful
in emergency situations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">First
pass effect is avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
producing gastric irritation can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
that are not absorbed from G.I.T can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
destroyed by gastric acid can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Extravasation of drugs produces
irritation and cellulitis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chances of thrombophlebitis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Repeated I/V administration require
patent veins sometimes that may not be possible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Less safe, once the side effects
produced, they are difficult to control.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Technical person is needed,
self-administration is difficult.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Expensive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inconvenient and painful.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Danger of infection, if proper
sterilization techniques are not used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Subcutaneous injection<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In
subcutaneous route of administration, medication is injected in the layer of
skin directly below the epidermis and dermis. Subcutaneous injections are
highly effective in administering vaccines and medications such as insulin,
morphine, diacetylmorphine and goserelin. Subcutaneous, as opposed to
intravenous, injection of recreational drugs is referred to as "skin
popping."<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqb4HEuJKwyLcXiGgurgVaPMur4yrM16I9dvAQcr6hSmmx8Uonfy_Y3iOVdC64Fivo8txrYhcV_YPkWK8TghB8MjxALAtWCikvtIC2NlkkqHuBQQHKJYCCzQEdH27Ubl5iBtkTQ8qTArU/s1600/subcutaneous-injection.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqb4HEuJKwyLcXiGgurgVaPMur4yrM16I9dvAQcr6hSmmx8Uonfy_Y3iOVdC64Fivo8txrYhcV_YPkWK8TghB8MjxALAtWCikvtIC2NlkkqHuBQQHKJYCCzQEdH27Ubl5iBtkTQ8qTArU/s200/subcutaneous-injection.jpg" width="175" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Actions of the drugs are sustained and
uniform.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs can be given in presence of
vomiting and diarrhea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs can be given to unconscious
patients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">First pass effect is avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs that are not absorbed from G.I.T
can be given.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Only non-irritant drugs can be given
otherwise severe irritation, pain and necrosis of subcutaneous tissues can
occur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Absorption of the drugs is slow than
I/M injection.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Expensive.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Danger of infection, if proper
sterilization techniques are not used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Large volumes of drug cannot be given.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intracardiac injections <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">These
are the injections that are given directly into the heart muscles or
ventricles. They are used in emergencies. Intracardiac injections of drugs are
generally used only to provide emergency drugs to a patient if other approaches
would be ineffective; for example if drugs cannot be administered intravenously
due to individual circumstances. The procedure is performed by inserting a long
spinal needle into the ventricular chamber. The needle is inserted in the
fourth intercostal space between the ribs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidHy-Ma4vr2fhRCkWYqsfFd8hI-GGM3jDOQ7dxtRDueaXXXaithJIbnFRROuxChQVFnRCzxBfi0wYO4MVXv-9ILCyc1QY7tHf2z6SfsxKYzacyN_T0-Pfs6VTTgTQn7JihTYRz-0SIHl0/s1600/asdf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidHy-Ma4vr2fhRCkWYqsfFd8hI-GGM3jDOQ7dxtRDueaXXXaithJIbnFRROuxChQVFnRCzxBfi0wYO4MVXv-9ILCyc1QY7tHf2z6SfsxKYzacyN_T0-Pfs6VTTgTQn7JihTYRz-0SIHl0/s1600/asdf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTO0vRIyAJRXgBrsPS9K_1QMB8MgUMUxRY-YyRwPQx_ivaoiqEJAbiISNI6uSGfVF_8lnWat30-AG56dNlOGuOHVXSgnR-rb2HlWRzZK-9_nlfJDIun9uo2KmG_kQwx770y2KkIyoAuuU/s200/cardiac.bmp" width="200" /></a> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidHy-Ma4vr2fhRCkWYqsfFd8hI-GGM3jDOQ7dxtRDueaXXXaithJIbnFRROuxChQVFnRCzxBfi0wYO4MVXv-9ILCyc1QY7tHf2z6SfsxKYzacyN_T0-Pfs6VTTgTQn7JihTYRz-0SIHl0/s1600/asdf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><img border="0" height="151" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidHy-Ma4vr2fhRCkWYqsfFd8hI-GGM3jDOQ7dxtRDueaXXXaithJIbnFRROuxChQVFnRCzxBfi0wYO4MVXv-9ILCyc1QY7tHf2z6SfsxKYzacyN_T0-Pfs6VTTgTQn7JihTYRz-0SIHl0/s200/asdf.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Rapid action of the drug<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> painful procedure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intraperitoneal
injection (IP)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">It
is the injection of a substance into the peritoneum. IP injection is more often
applied to animals. In general, it is preferred when large amounts of blood
replacement fluids are needed, or when low blood pressure or other problems
prevent the use of a suitable blood vessel for intravenous injection. In
animals, IP injection is used predominantly in veterinary medicine and animal
testing for the administration of systemic drugs and fluids due to the ease of
administration compared with other parenteral methods. The drug substance is
subject to first pass through the liver. Intraperitoneal administration is one
of the most frequently-used parenteral routes in rodents.</span> <b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Rapid action of the drug.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> infection, pain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwG0PB7eD-hMwzo4nz7ojvygsSG8HAAvyU0dr8HaIGlOiQhyPudkk9WpeZKQnF3JEnURJ97j8mhhuJuibMDTHiAnVatvjNu4sC1uxCzK5Hs263PlclsKsP8W2ONklj8G3ux_Nkxl7j1CE/s1600/peri.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwG0PB7eD-hMwzo4nz7ojvygsSG8HAAvyU0dr8HaIGlOiQhyPudkk9WpeZKQnF3JEnURJ97j8mhhuJuibMDTHiAnVatvjNu4sC1uxCzK5Hs263PlclsKsP8W2ONklj8G3ux_Nkxl7j1CE/s320/peri.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intradermal Injection (ID)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intradermal
injections are given to a patient in which the goal is to empty the contents of
the syringe between the layers of the skin. These injections are oftenlly used
for conducting skin allergy tests
and testing for antibody formation. Diagnostic tests include Schick test for
diphtheria, dick test for scarlet fever, Vaccines include DBT, BCG and polio, and
Sensitivity is to penicillin. This is a painful procedure and is used only with
small amounts of solution. One should ensure that the needle is inserted into
the epidermis, not subcutaneously, as absorption would be reduced.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifJ-wgmFKeXw6P75t8lFRD6vYirRE3fJ3LiaLGBuM-X6gCyicIwAa1N4UyHI2OSveNhN9mnNOG7EV1N8JfHCe-y_CVobzYruQk-cLjub4sJOE193bifaEfw8XYh-N3LI8jOvMPTlENVzU/s1600/intradermal.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="190" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifJ-wgmFKeXw6P75t8lFRD6vYirRE3fJ3LiaLGBuM-X6gCyicIwAa1N4UyHI2OSveNhN9mnNOG7EV1N8JfHCe-y_CVobzYruQk-cLjub4sJOE193bifaEfw8XYh-N3LI8jOvMPTlENVzU/s200/intradermal.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intrathecal Injection<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This
is an injection into the spinal cord, more specifically into the sub-arachnoid
space so that it reaches the CSF and is useful in spinal anesthesia,
chemotherapy, or pain management applications. This route is also used to
introduce drugs that fight certain infections, particularly post-neurosurgical.
The drug needs to be given this way to avoid the blood brain barrier. The same
drug given orally must enter the blood stream and may not be able to pass out
and into the brain. Drugs given intrathecally often have to be made up
especially by a pharmacist or technician because they cannot contain any
preservative or other potentially harmful inactive ingredients that are
sometimes found in standard injectable drug preparations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheAuyswpAGuYYYWLFiu72FO_Di0TeK6NFVIN__2V18X9i9ECrLv9rEJ-lglZNUfj_e10M0CWQTt2KHTA5Q5L-u4qEOD-qbC0YjKv5e8ttVb4FFd9-WTTthHfGO9f6GUkbtlkQ1PB1sFpU/s1600/epidural.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheAuyswpAGuYYYWLFiu72FO_Di0TeK6NFVIN__2V18X9i9ECrLv9rEJ-lglZNUfj_e10M0CWQTt2KHTA5Q5L-u4qEOD-qbC0YjKv5e8ttVb4FFd9-WTTthHfGO9f6GUkbtlkQ1PB1sFpU/s320/epidural.png" width="228" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Epidural injection<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
term epidural is a simplified
and all-inclusive term often used to refer to techniques in which an injection
is delivered into the epidural space of the spinal cord. The epidural route is
frequently employed by certain physicians to administer anesthesia, diagnostic (e.g.
radiocontrast agents) and therapeutic (e.g., glucocorticoids) chemical
substances, as well as certain analgesic and local anaesthetic agents. This
technique involves the injection of drugs through a catheter placed into the
epidural space. The injection can result in a loss of sensation including the
sensation of pain by blocking the transmission of signals through nerves in or
near the spinal cord.</span> <b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHadP3RiPSc_BacxdBR8klldpc4CL_PQql_qT7exyy8fnlJ11BryUtcP47Y2Bsds2ek6WY2kWeZd4G_Q3JVMnrQKP_mdN2keYdHePkjSr76NUcQG1xWTn88PhWe3AndjKbJRKd7c9fGs0/s1600/Epidural+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHadP3RiPSc_BacxdBR8klldpc4CL_PQql_qT7exyy8fnlJ11BryUtcP47Y2Bsds2ek6WY2kWeZd4G_Q3JVMnrQKP_mdN2keYdHePkjSr76NUcQG1xWTn88PhWe3AndjKbJRKd7c9fGs0/s1600/Epidural+2.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Spinal
anesthesia is a technique whereby a local anaesthetic drug is injected into the
cerebrospinal fluid. This technique has some similarity to epidural anesthesia,
and may confuse these two techniques. Important differences include:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="circle">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">To achieve
epidural analgesia or anesthesia, a larger dose of drug is typically
necessary than with spinal analgesia or anesthesia.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The onset of
analgesia is slower with epidural analgesia or anesthesia than with spinal
analgesia or anesthesia.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">An epidural
injection may be performed anywhere along the vertebral column (cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, or sacral), while spinal injections are typically
performed below the second lumbar vertebral body to avoid piercing and
consequently damaging the spinal cord.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">INHALATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Inhalation
may be the route of choice to avoid the systemic effects. In this way drugs can
pass directly to the lungs. Drugs include volatile compounds and gases. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKkm5855Jmt0upEhXuDkNOGCM2WihhCNjuMbh0bKOEGnDg9WTEaJVbciDQV_zSMRX4kdpiq9oH7hTTbIL4VYgzJkxJ8FjZUwJ8KxsGsnFhw_Wj82kItXnJ7oGYFVI50z7855M0VSCn9s0/s1600/inh.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKkm5855Jmt0upEhXuDkNOGCM2WihhCNjuMbh0bKOEGnDg9WTEaJVbciDQV_zSMRX4kdpiq9oH7hTTbIL4VYgzJkxJ8FjZUwJ8KxsGsnFhw_Wj82kItXnJ7oGYFVI50z7855M0VSCn9s0/s200/inh.bmp" width="140" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Advantages:</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rapid absorption takes place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rapid onset of action takes place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This route has minimum side effects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">No first pass effect takes place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This method is easy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Fewer doses are required.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Disadvantages:</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Special apparatus is required.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Irritation of the respiratory tract
may take place.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cooperation of the patient is
required.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Airway must be patent.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">TOPICAL ROUTE</span></strong><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
may be applied to the external surfaces, the skin and the mucous membranes.
Topical route includes:</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJbqQ9B3BVXbqUBVtDxo4F-ho9LCZxqAR6OQpHo50tQpLWTYF7ygGSXDNZyLNuxNhFlQVqbdn7pRdS-8dESohlDsWEDyVSNyCNnxTwyKq0QwiPDMV65vDpesunkwgbpougKIgwXGCKsgI/s1600/to.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJbqQ9B3BVXbqUBVtDxo4F-ho9LCZxqAR6OQpHo50tQpLWTYF7ygGSXDNZyLNuxNhFlQVqbdn7pRdS-8dESohlDsWEDyVSNyCNnxTwyKq0QwiPDMV65vDpesunkwgbpougKIgwXGCKsgI/s1600/to.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">a. Enepidermic route</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">: When the drug is applied to the
outer skin, it is called enepidermic route of drug administration. Examples
include poultices, plasters, creams and ointments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">b. Epidermic route (Innunition):</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> When the drug is rubbed into the
skin, it is known as epidermic route. Examples include different oils.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">c. Insufflations:</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> When drug in finely powdered form is
blown into the body cavities or spaces with special nebulizer, the method is
known as insufflations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">d. Instillation</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">: Liquids may be poured into the body
by a dropper into the conjunctival sac, ear, nose and wounds. Solids may also
be administered.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">e. Irrigation or Douching</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">: This method is used for washing a
cavity e.g. urinary bladder, uterus, vagina and urethra. It is also used for
application of antiseptic drugs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">f. Painting/Swabbing</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">: Drugs are simply applied in the form
of lotion on cutaneous or mucosal surfaces of buccal, nasal cavity and other
internal organs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-51962314152295406872013-08-15T04:34:00.005-07:002013-08-15T05:06:53.109-07:00TIME OF ONSET OF ACTION USING DIFFERENT ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFHpGp39Txfk1iRwU7an-BzvyftxzFWw3CSpYNTf3W7euV-hymEmIL5WSO1clmtGgvnZbbImA8H83kdHcF3ZTJ_oD_Uv8i0qONaJ3EI7Kecg_Z5w9pA2hgtShnTCr0tGWFrj2SpEaLFvU/s1600/time.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFHpGp39Txfk1iRwU7an-BzvyftxzFWw3CSpYNTf3W7euV-hymEmIL5WSO1clmtGgvnZbbImA8H83kdHcF3ZTJ_oD_Uv8i0qONaJ3EI7Kecg_Z5w9pA2hgtShnTCr0tGWFrj2SpEaLFvU/s200/time.jpg" width="178" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drugs
take different time durations after injection using different routes to perform
their actions. This time delay is important, oral route has controlled release
time, thus depot or reservoir preparation may be made e.g. penicillin for
rheumatic fever. Usage of drug depends on its physical properties, chemical
properties, speed of action, need and bypass effect.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some
of the approximate time intervals are given below:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="text-align: center;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Route of Drug Administration</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Delay time for Action</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intravenous route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">With in 30-60 seconds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intraosseous route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">30-60 seconds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Endotracheal inhalation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2-3 minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Sublingual route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3-5 minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Intramuscular route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10-20 minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Rectal route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5-30 minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 207.75pt;" valign="top" width="277"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Ingestion<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 270.75pt;" valign="top" width="361"><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">With in </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">30-90 minutes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-66892064067521061252013-08-12T20:33:00.000-07:002013-08-13T04:25:10.291-07:00CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUFrAgcCwMt3_XzX52yErZAYvTf3kL7lPoohF7I6CfpXt_MH4_10SO8HrigRTkdypya-SRVnTPHRPQ1GghV0U_x152DLhebTvuMNOjmVbDnuFb54qL8ceA5cf90iO-5VoqV13RCzQnekg/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUFrAgcCwMt3_XzX52yErZAYvTf3kL7lPoohF7I6CfpXt_MH4_10SO8HrigRTkdypya-SRVnTPHRPQ1GghV0U_x152DLhebTvuMNOjmVbDnuFb54qL8ceA5cf90iO-5VoqV13RCzQnekg/s200/1.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; text-align: justify;">Drugs
can be classified in many different ways, ranging from their chemical structure
to the principal effect they produce, or the disease that they treat. Which
method of classification used is usually dependent upon one’s point of view.
For example, the drug amphetamine could be classified in at least five
different ways (Table ) depending upon who was doing the classifying:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Physician: Appetite-suppressing agent
(anorexigenic)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Pharmacologist: Sympathomimetic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Chemist: 2-amino-1-phenylpropane<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Lawyer: Drug of abuse falling in schedule II
of the 1970 federal drug law<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';"> o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Psychologist: Stimulant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; text-align: justify;">By
analyzing the method of classification imposed upon a drug we can gain some
insight into which of its characteristics is being emphasized by the
classifier. However, there is an alternative classification system to those
just described that can also be instructive. This system seeks to put drugs
into four functionally distinct categories that divulge important distinctions
about therapeutic and non therapeutic principles.The four categories are listed
below.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Drugs used to combat infection:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this category are based on the
concepts of selective toxicity and chemotherapy developed by Paul Ehrlich in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Ehrlich made the observation
that the dye methylene blue specifically stained neural tissue but not any
other. From this specific observation he generalized that some molecular
characteristic of neural tissue conferred selectivity on the dye and that a
similar situation might exist in foreign organisms, which could form the basis
for selective chemotherapy. Unfortunately, there are few pure examples of true
selective toxicity. Perhaps the best is penicillin. The therapeutic specificity
of this antibiotic is based upon the qualitative difference between bacterial
cell wall synthesis and mammalian cell membrane synthesis. Synthesis of the
former can be inhibited by penicillin while the latter is unaffected. Thus,
penicillin is one of the few examples of a drug that can actually “cure” an
illness. A similar example involves the sulfa drugs, which interfere with the
synthesis of folic acid, used in nucleic acid formation, in bacteria. While
bacteria must synthesize their own folic acid, mammalian cells utilize dietary,
preformed folic acid and are not susceptible to interference with its formation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Drugs used to replace inadequacies of naturally occurring
substances</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In an ideal sense this class of drugs
represents the “purest” form of drug use in that they are not “foreign” to the
body. Examples include the use of hormones, such as insulin, in replacement
therapy. Insulin is obviously an endogenous hormone and, if the human
preparation is used, is exactly the same in all of us. The therapeutic goal in
treating diabetes mellitus is to replace normal, physiological levels of
insulin. The neurogenic chemical l-dopa can also be thought of in a similar
manner since it is used to treat inadequate brain levels of dopamine in certain
cases of parkinsonism. It must be understood, however, that if hormones are
given in supraphysiological amounts they have the capacity to produce
undesirable effects just as any xenobiotic does.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Drugs that change regulation:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This group contains the largest total number
of drugs used because they deal with the treatment of symptoms. Drugs used in
this category do not cure, or replace, but can effectively manage acute or
chronic disorders, often involving regulatory changes in the cardiovascular or
nervous system, for example. Drugs in this category include antihypertensives,
antianginals, diuretics, anticoagulants, analgesic and antipyretics, sedatives,
anticonvulsants, and birth control pills.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Drugs to alter mood or behavior:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">This
class includes relatively widely used licit, as well as illicit, drugs such as
tranquilizers, alcohol, and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, the active ingredient in
marijuana). In addition, “hard” drugs such as cocaine, opiates, and
hallucinogens are also included. This class of drugs is usually taken to change
our perceptions of our environment and ourselves. They are often taken to
relieve anxiety or to facilitate our involvement in certain social or
“recreational” settings. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
addition to the variety of drug classification systems just described, a
similar diversity, and somewhat bewildering array, of systems is used to name
drugs during their development. This is because in the course of a drug’s
development, it usually acquires more than one identifying name. An example is
the common drug aspirin:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Chemical name</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">—A
systematized and standardized nomenclature that encodes within the name
descriptive information about the molecular constitution of the drug (e.g.,
2-acetoxybenzoic acid).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Trivial name</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">—A
coined name in general use. It is a common name by which the drug is identified
although it may not be intrinsically descriptive. There may be more than one trivial
name (e.g., acetylsalicylic acid).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Generic or established name</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">—A
similar or contrived or coined name in general use. It usually refers to the
U.S. name adopted by nomenclature groups known as the USAN and USP Committees.
The generic or established names are trivial names but they have a somewhat
more official status (e.g., aspirin).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Trade name</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">—A brand or proprietary
name; a legally registered trademark of a drug or dosage form of a drug. This
name is the property of the registrant. There may be more than one trade name
for a drug (e.g., Empirin™). Before considering the pharmacology of any
particular class of drugs, it is important to understand the basic underlying
principles of drug action.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-18046650757207188212013-08-12T20:35:00.002-07:002013-08-13T04:24:20.096-07:00DIFFERENT EFFECTS OF DRUGS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHzLqNjGhZpuGJ1Ln6g9uUBBmjzUB7upYuO-hE7f20PY9ZDDQ75o5seMPRak34nMATd9gIWHu6rvrvtadmcSINLvc0f8_lyhkggV_E3QNsqzTjMI7vEhgw2Ni1GG0wWGHx33mLAslGxQM/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHzLqNjGhZpuGJ1Ln6g9uUBBmjzUB7upYuO-hE7f20PY9ZDDQ75o5seMPRak34nMATd9gIWHu6rvrvtadmcSINLvc0f8_lyhkggV_E3QNsqzTjMI7vEhgw2Ni1GG0wWGHx33mLAslGxQM/s1600/2.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Medication effects on tissue are classified as
desirable and undesirable. A desirable effect occurs when the medication
improves the patient’s health. An undesirable effect occurs when the medication
interferes with the patient’s normal physiology. A medication can have both a
desirable and an undesirable effect. The healthcare provider determines whether
the desirable effects outweigh the undesirable effects before administering the
medication to the patient. Additional medication may be given to reduce the
undesirable effects of another medication. A desirable effect is called the
medication’s therapeutic effect and is the reason for the healthcare provider
to administer the medication. An undesirable effect is called either a side
effect or an adverse side effect, depending on the consequence the undesirable
effect has on the patient. A side effect is an undesirable effect that is
relatively not harmful to the patient, such as drowsiness caused by an
antihistamine. An adverse side effect is an undesirable consequence that is
harmful to the patient, such as when healthy cells are destroyed along with
cancerous cells during chemotherapy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Placebo Effect<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It is
any treatment (including drugs, psychotherapy, quack therapy, and surgery) that
achieves an ameliorative effect on a symptom or disease but that is in fact
ineffective or is not specifically effective for the condition being treated.
Many effective antianxiety drugs have been prescribed both knowingly and
unknowingly at placebo dosages. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the
effectiveness of antidepressant drugs for the treatment of depression in a
range of 45 to 80 percent—pretty impressive, but the placebo effectiveness in
depression is also high, ranging from 30 to 50 percent. Placebos are effective
for a variety of conditions. Patients with angina pectoris (insufficient blood
flow to the heart) responded to placebo surgery in which surgeons made only an
incision in the chest. And in a study of the drug propranolol that is used
after heart attacks to prevent further damage, investigators noticed that
patients who took placebo pills regularly had a lower death rate than patients
who took placebos sporadically. Therefore, the placebo effect is not unique to
psychiatric illness. Conversely, what types of patients are not really amenable
to a placebo effect? If you are a type I (insulin-dependent) diabetic, who goes
into hypoglycemic shock, a placebo effect will not help. No matter how much
patient believe in whatever he is or is
not taking, nothing will change the physiological dynamics between circulating
blood glucose level and brain’s extremely high need for this energy substrate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Medication Safety<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The Food and Drug Administration requires
that medication undergo rigorous testing before approving the medication. Testing
includes the following animal studies to determine the medication’s therapeutic
index. A therapeutic index is a ratio between the median lethal dose and the
median effective dose and indicates the safe dose to administer to the patient
to achieve the therapeutic effect. These tests also provide scientists with
information on how the medication is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and
excreted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Acute
Toxicity Study:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> Toxic
effect usually appears within 24 hours with single or multiple exposures. This
is the initial test that determines the dose that is lethal to 50% of tested
laboratory animals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Sub Acute
Toxicity Study:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> When
animal species are administered daily doses of the medication for 30 days,
toxic effect appears within 30 days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Sub
Chronic Toxicity Study:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> Two animal
species are administered daily doses of the medication for 90 days. Animal test
subjects are given physical examinations and laboratory tests during the 90
days to determine the medication’s effect on organs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Chronic
Toxicity Study:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> Two
animal species are administered three dose levels, nontoxic, therapeutic, and
toxic. The medication is usually administered over the life span of the test
animal or the duration that the medication is intended to be given to humans.
Animals are given physical exams and laboratory tests to determine the effect
of the medication on organs and its potential carcinogenicity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-66865417851951632722013-08-12T21:21:00.001-07:002013-08-13T04:23:28.663-07:00A PROFESSIONAL WAY OF WRITING PRESCRIPTION<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizUI0DNI8sF7xZ-60r_LkdO0rjyKGjkNIS7HJe8W2yI00zc47TlbWoq6XNeZwRGhwa9bwne-12yFHBO3L05RPJk1O4Yk17TsdyOSwwrQF6-N1pM_3q2ViGzpnWsXCho8BeLBoIXysOE08/s1600/56.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizUI0DNI8sF7xZ-60r_LkdO0rjyKGjkNIS7HJe8W2yI00zc47TlbWoq6XNeZwRGhwa9bwne-12yFHBO3L05RPJk1O4Yk17TsdyOSwwrQF6-N1pM_3q2ViGzpnWsXCho8BeLBoIXysOE08/s200/56.jpg" width="197" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">When
a patient is received in hospital or clinic, immediately medication is started
to save the patient. In performing the medicine administration, one should
adhere to the six rights of medication administration</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1.
Right patient<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2.
Right medication<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3.
Right dose<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4.
Right route<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5.
Right time<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6.
Right documentation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Patient<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Ensuring
that the right patient receives the right drug is usually not a problem in
prehospital care because typically only one patient is being treated. However,
in some circumstances more than one patient may be undergoing treatment,
especially in multiple casualty incidents in which many patients are involved.
Care should be taken to distinguish the patients to avoid confusion and
possible medication error. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Medication<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A common error in prehospital drug
administration is selection of the wrong medication. Most emergency medications
are supplied in ampules, vials, or prefilled syringes. Many look very similar.
To ensure that the right drug is selected, one should carefully read the label.
If the drug is supplied in a box, they should check the label on the box and
compare it with the label on the vial or ampule itself after removing it from
the box. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Drug
preparations and concentrations can vary. In addition to checking the drug
name, drug concentration should always be checked to ensure that the is the one
desired. After the physician’s verbal order, pharmacist should repeat the order
back to confirm that medication is correct and according to the physician
order. The expiration date of a drug should always be checked prior to
administration. The medication should be held up to the light and inspected for
discoloration or particles in the solution. Expired and discolored medications
should be discarded.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Dose<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Administration
of the correct drug dose is crucial. Errors in dosage occur in either
calculating the correct dose or preparing the correct dose. Most drug orders
are fairly straightforward, and many medications are supplied in unit-dose
forms. In these cases, drug dosage calculation and drug preparation are easy.
However, many medications, especially those administered by intravenous
infusion, are much more difficult to dose. For these medications, paramedics
should refer to standardized dosage charts to assist with preparation and
administration of the desired dose.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Route<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Most
medications used in hospitals are designed to be given by the intravenous
route. However, certain medications can be given by other routes depending on
the physician’s orders. It is the pharmacist’s responsibility to know the
various routes by which a particular drug can be administered. For example, the
drugs hydroxyzine and promethazine are frequently used in the treatment of
nausea. Promethazine can be administered both intravenously and
intramuscularly. Hydroxyzine, in comparison, can be administered only by the
intramuscular route.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Time<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">During
the medication therapy, drugs may be administered repeatedly at specific time
intervals. An important consideration is the rate and time during which a drug
is administered. Many drugs can be administered rapidly as an intravenous
bolus. Others must be administered at a specific rate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Right
Documentation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
drugs administered in the field can affect the medication therapy when patient
get admitted in the hospital. So medication therapy must be completely
documented that patient can get right medication while staying in the hospital.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">All
these six medication rights are only well managed when they are documented
properly. The documentation from physician is called Prescription.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">THE PRESCRIPTION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The word "prescription" stems from
the Latin term praescriptus. Praescriptus is made up of two Latin word parts,
prae-, a prefix meaning before, and scribere, a word root meaning to write.
Putting it all together, prescription means "to write before," which
reflects the historical fact that a prescription traditionally had to be
written before a drug could be mixed and administered to a patient.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The prescription is one of the most important
therapeutic transactions between physician, Pharmacist and patient. The art of
prescription writing is an ancient inheritance. The ancients started their
prescription with an appeal to the gods for its success. The ancient symbol,
Rx, signifying the appeal, was established centuries ago and has been carried
down to the present time. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Many ancient prescriptions were noted for
their multiple ingredients and complexity of preparation. The importance of the
prescription and the need for complete understanding and accuracy made it
imperative that a universal and standard language be employed. Thus, Latin was
adopted, and its use was continued until approximately a generation ago.
Present-day prescription practices lead, for the most part, to prescriptions
containing a single ingredient, written in English, with doses given in the
metric system. The ancient "Rx" and the Latin "Signatura,"
abbreviated as "Sig.," are all that remain of the ancient art of the
prescription. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drug use is a complex process and there are
many drug related challenges at various levels, involving prescriber,
pharmacists and patients. While medication misadventure can occur anywhere in
the health care system from prescriber to dispenser to administration and
finally to patient use, To avoid undesirable and/or serious effects on the
patient, both physician and pharmacist must render the highest of professional
services. Accurate diagnosis; proper selection of medication, dosage form and
route of administration; proper size and timing of dose; precise dispensing;
accurate labeling; and correct packaging all must be provided. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Types of Drugs<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Prescriptioned/Legend Drugs:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> These drugs
may not be dispensed by a pharmacist without a prescription from a physician,
veterinarian, dentist.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Controlled Drugs:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> In addition to
requiring a prescription, these drugs require additional safeguards for
storage. Refills are also limited. Both Government agencies promulgate
regulations regarding these drugs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Over-the-Counter (OTC) Drugs:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> These drugs
do not require a prescription. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Pattern of Prescription<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">A prescription consists of;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Description
of Prescriber<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Description
of Patient<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Superscription<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Inscription
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Subscription
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Signa
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Courier New';">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Signature
of the Physician<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Description of Prescriber<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The name, qualification either MBBS, DVM,
BDS, MD contact information including office number, emergency hours numbers
and mobile number and address of the Prescriber are written in this section.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Description of Patient<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Name of owner, address, description of the
patient including age, color, sex, specie, breed, temperature, pulse,
respiration, any physical abnormality should be mentioned in this section. The
date when the prescription order is written with daily, monthly and yearly
number should also be mentioned in this section.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Superscription<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Rx is an important abbreviation written in
this section. There are two school of thoughts about this abbreviation. One is
about the Romans. They claimed that it is their symbol, they added in the
prescription to add the blessings of their god of health called Jupiter just to
add the blessing in the cure of disease. Second is about the Latins. They
claimed that this word resemble to the symbol written in latin language which
means "recipe," the Latin for "take thou." The English “you
take”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="tab-stops: 170.25pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Inscription <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It is also called the body of the
prescription. It consist of one or all of followings<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="circle">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A
"basis" or chief ingredient indended to cure<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An
"adjuvant" to assist its action and make it cure quickly<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A
"corrective" to prevent or lessen any undesirable effect <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A
"vehicle" or "excipient" to make it suitable for
administration and pleasant to the patient <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Subscription<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In this section directions are given to the
pharmacist, usually consisting of a short sentence such as: "make a
solution," "mix and place into 10 capsules," or "dispense
10 tablets" from the prescriber.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Signatura<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">From the Latin "signa," meaning
"write," "make," or "label," this section. It
contains the directions to the patient. These should always be written in
English; however, physicians continue to insert Latin abbreviations, e.g.
"1 cap t.i.d. pc," which the pharmacist translates into English,
"take one capsule three times daily after meals." Since the
pharmacist always writes the label in English. The directions to the patient
should include a reminder of the intended purpose of the medication by
including such phrases as "for pain," "for relief of
headache," or "to relieve itching". <b>Labeling</b>; when the physician wants his patient to know the name of
the drug, the box on the prescription form marked "label" should be
checked. <b>Refills</b>; the physician
should designate the number of refills he wishes the patient to have.
Proprietary vs. Non-Proprietary ("Generic") Prescriptions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In recent years, some hospitals and private
physicians are indicating on the prescription their willingness or desire that
the pharmacist dispense a non-proprietary or "generic-named"
preparation instead of the trade name item written on the prescription. Some
have a box on the prescription designated "N.P.P." In this way, the
pharmacist can use a form of the drug which may be less expensive to the
patient. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The amount to be dispensed should be clearly
stated and should be that needed by the patient. Excessive amounts should never
be dispensed, as it is not only expensive to the patient, but may lead to
accumulation of medicines in the home, which later can cause harm to the
patient or members of his family. It is far better to have several refills of a
prescription than to have an excessive amount prescribed at one time. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">LAWS AFFECTING PRESCRIPTION WRITING <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Controlled Substances Act of 1970 <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedules of Controlled Drugs:</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> The drugs that come under the jurisdiction
of the Controlled Substances Act are divided into five schedules. Drugs can be
scheduled, unscheduled, or moved from one schedule to another as the need
arises. Schedules are as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedule I <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this schedule have no accepted
medical use in the United States and have a high abuse potential. Examples are
heroin, marijuana, LSD, peyote, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedule II <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this schedule have a high abuse
potential with severe psychic or physical dependence liability. Included are
certain narcotic analgesics, stimulants, and depressant drugs. Examples are
opium, morphine, codeine, hydromorphone, methadone, meperidine, oxycodone,
anileridine, cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, phenmetrazine, methylphenidate,
amobarbital, pentobarbital, secobarbital, methaqualone, and phencyclidine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedule III <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this schedule have an abuse
potential less than those in Schedules I and II and include compounds
containing limited quantities of certain narcotic analgesic drugs, and other
drugs such as barbiturates, glutethimide, methyprylon, and chlorphentemine. Any
suppository dosage form containing amobarbital, secobarbital, or pentobarbital
is in this schedule. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedule IV <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this schedule have an abuse
potential less than those listed in Schedule III and include such drugs as
barbital, phenobarbital, chloral hydrate, ethchlorvynol, meprobabmate,
chlordizepoxide, diazepam, oxazepam, chloroazepate, flurazepam, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Schedule V <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Drugs in this schedule have an abuse
potential less than those listed in Schedule IV and consist primarily of
preparations containing limited quantities of certain narcotic analgesic drugs
used for antitussive and antidiarrheal purposes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PRESCRIPTION WRITING<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">As
prescription is nothing more than information among a prescriber, pharmacist
and patient. Information technology can be applied to it. Existing information
technology is adequate to print out prescriptions. </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medical_information_system&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Medical information system (page does not exist)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">Medical information systems</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> in some hospitals do away with prescriptions within the
hospital. There are proposals to securely transmit the prescription from the
prescriber to the pharmacist using </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartcard" title="Smartcard"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">smartcard</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> or the
internet. In the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-themecolor: text1;">United Kingdom</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> a project called the Electronic Transfer of
Prescriptions (ETP) within the National Program for IT is currently piloting
such a scheme between prescribers and pharmacies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Within
computerized pharmacies, the information on paper prescriptions is recorded
into a database. Afterwards, the paper prescription is archived for storage and
legal reasons.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A pharmacy
chain is often linked together through corporate headquarters with computer
networking. Walgreens (</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">largest
American drug retailing chain)
for example, uses satellite technology to share patient information. A person
who has a prescription filled at one Walgreens can get a refill of that
prescription at any other store in the chain, as well as have their information
available for new prescriptions at any Walgreens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Some online
pharmacies also offer services to customers over the internet. They allow
customers to order refills for medicine over the internet, and allows them to
specify the store that they will pick up the medicine from. Many pharmacies now
offer services to ship prescription refills right to the patient's home. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-18740915060491705992013-08-13T03:18:00.001-07:002013-08-13T03:19:07.843-07:00CALCULATIONS IN PHARMACOLOGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie6Hzo43Q7ZGGGFMgU-qePxsNk4ZUELClWRFoQPUNxF7fAwUlu5_efjKknFnhjtEWoo4sFcy9tNAdohOzbaCdzo5fre0_YsnIZ4UrFnlBS8kO3AS2axMNDLuCwH8tPAZCEUAUOHj_M3Zk/s1600/098.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie6Hzo43Q7ZGGGFMgU-qePxsNk4ZUELClWRFoQPUNxF7fAwUlu5_efjKknFnhjtEWoo4sFcy9tNAdohOzbaCdzo5fre0_YsnIZ4UrFnlBS8kO3AS2axMNDLuCwH8tPAZCEUAUOHj_M3Zk/s200/098.jpg" width="165" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Posology</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> is a vital part of
medical and pharmaceutical practice and study, not just for humans, but also
for animals. It is the science of determining and understanding drug dosage, as
based on research into a huge number of factors. To a limited or extensive degree,
posology may be studied by anyone who wants to become a doctor, nurse,
pharmacist, veterinarian, or pharmacologist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Medications
are great, and they have been valuable to the sum of veterinary and human
medicine. They may cure some diseases completely, and they may greatly reduce
symptoms of others. The issue of exactly what amount to give is one that must
be carefully considered. Digitalis, for instance, can improve heart function,
and it can kill people easily. Deciding how to give the right dose is thus
extremely important, and those administering this drug need to know how to
prescribe it appropriately. In order to write a prescription, Physician must
have understanding about the units used in weighing and measuring the medicinal
agents.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Weight:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> It is a measure of the gravitational
force acting on the body. Weight is directly proportional to the body mass. The
mass is constant everywhere and based on inertia where as weight varies
slightly with altitude, temperature and pressure. The effects of these factors
are not considered unless very precise weighing and large quantity are
involved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Measure:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> It is the determination of the volume
or extent of a body. Temperature and pressure have pronounced effect,
especially on gases and liquids. These factors are therefore considered when
making precise measurements. For the quantification of weights and measures
there are two systems used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">THE METRIC SYSTEM:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Metric
systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the first well-defined
system in France in 1795. During this evolution the use of these systems has
spread throughout the world. Multiples and submultiples of metric units are
related by powers of ten and their names are formed with prefixes. This
relationship is compatible with the decimal system of numbers and it
contributes greatly to the convenience of metric units. In the early metric
system there were two fundamental or base units, the metre for length and the
gram for mass. The other units of length and mass, and all units of area,
volume, and compound units such as density were derived from these two
fundamental units. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">BASIC UNITS OF THE
METRIC SYSTEM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Meter:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> It is the unit of length upon which
the other units of the metric system are based. One meter is equal to
1/40,000,000 of the earth’s polar circumference. One meter is equal to 39.37
inches. It is abbreviated as “m”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Liter:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
It is the basic unit of volume used to measure liquids. One liter is
equal to the volume of one cubic decimeter of water at 4°C. It is abbreviated
as “l”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Gram:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The gram is the basic unit of weight
used to weigh solids. One gram is equal to the weight of one milliliter of
distilled water at 4°C. It is abbreviated as “g or Gm”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In 1944 the council on pharmacy and
chemistry of the American Medical Association adopted the metric system
exclusively. The advantage of the metric or decimal system, and its simplicity,
brevity and its adoptively to every day need are now conceded universally. In
many experimental procedures, including some in the pharmaceutical sciences,
very small quantities (and occasionally very large) of the weight, length,
volume, time or radioactivity are measured. To avoid the use of various numbers
with many zero in such cases, the NIST recognized prefixes to be used to
express fractions or multiple of the International System of Units, which was
established in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures the
recognized prefixes, which in used are adjoined to an appropriate unit (as, for
example, in such quantities as nanogram, picomole, microcurie, microsecond, or,
megavolt) are defined as under in table 1.<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">S.NO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">FACTIONS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">PREFIX<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">SYMBOL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">MULTIPLE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">PREFIX<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">SIMBLE<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-1</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">deci<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">d<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">deca<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">da<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">centi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">c<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">hecto<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-3</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">milli<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>3</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">kilo<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">k<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">micro<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">µ<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">miga<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">M<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-9</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">nano<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">n<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>9</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">giga<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">G<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-12</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">pica<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">P<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>12</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">tera<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">T<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">7<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-15</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">femto<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">F<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>15</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">peta<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">P<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">8<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-18</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">atto<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>18</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">exa<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: .95in;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">E<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Table 1: Recognized
prefixes with fractions and symbols<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Some of the metric weights are listed
in the table 2 below. The prefixes, which indicate multiples, are of Greek
derivation: deka, 10; hector, 100; kilo,1000. Fractions of the units are
expressed by Latin prefixes: deci, 1/10; centi, 1/100; milli, 1/1000.<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">S.NO <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">METRIC WEIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">EQUAL TO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">EQUIVALENT WEIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
microgram µg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.000001g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
milligram mg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.001g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
centigram cg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.01g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
decigram dg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.1g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
gram g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
decagram dag<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
hectogram hg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">100g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
kilogram kg<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 135.0pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.95in;" valign="top" width="187"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1000g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Table 2: Recognized
prefixes with fractions and symbols</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">S.NO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">UNIT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">INCHES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">MM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">µM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">NM<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
inch<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">25.4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">25400<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2.54×107<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2.54×108<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.0394<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>7</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.8pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1µm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3.94×10<sup>-5</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-3</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 14.8pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1nm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3.94×10<sup>-8</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-6</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-3</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.65pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 78.7pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1A(Angstrom)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.25pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3.94×10<sup>-9</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.05pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-7</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.15pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10<sup>-4</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 68.3pt;" valign="top" width="91"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Table 3: Equivalent
linear measurements<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">S.NO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">METRIC LEQUID MEASURES<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">EQUIVALENT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1 microliter(µL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.000001L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
mililiter(mL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.001L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
centiliter(cL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.01L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
deciliter(dL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">0.1L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
liter(L)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
dekaliter(dL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">7<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
hectoliter(hL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">100L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.25in;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">8<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 189.0pt;" valign="top" width="252"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1
kiloliter(kL)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.7in;" valign="top" width="259"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1000L<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Table 4: Equivalent Metric liquid measurements<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">THE ENGLISH SYSTEM <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">This
system grew out of the creative way that people measured for themselves.
Familiar objects and parts of the body were used as measuring devices.
For example, people measured shorter distances on the ground with their feet.
These measures had their origins in a variety of cultures –Babylonian,
Egyptian, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman French. The ancient "digit,"
"palm," "span" and "cubic" units of length slowly
lost preference to the length units "inch," "foot," and
"yard." <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Roman
contributions include the use of 12 as a base number (the foot is divided into
12 inches) and the words from which we derive many of our present measurement
unit names. For example, the 12 divisions of the Roman "pes," or foot
were called unciae. Our words "inch" and "ounce" are both
derived from that Latin word. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The "yard" as a measure of length can be traced back to
early Saxon kings. They wore a sash or girdle around the waist that could be
removed and used as a convenient measuring device. The word "yard"
comes from the Saxon word "gird" meaning the circumference of a
person’s waist. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In English system of measurement, <b>avoirdupois</b> and <b>apothecary</b> system of weight measurement are used in handling
medicine. It must be emphasized that pharmacist may buy their drugs by
avoirdupois weight.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Avoirdupois system:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> <span class="nowrap">The
word <i>avoirdupois</i></span> is from Anglo-Norman French <i>aveir de peis</i>
literally "goods of weight". This term originally referred to a class
of merchandise: <i>aveir de peis</i>, "goods of weight", things that
were sold in bulk and were weighed on large steelyards or balances. There are
two major theories regarding the origins of the avoirdupois system. The older
theory is that it originated in France. A newer theory is that it is based on
the weight system of Florence. The avoirdupois weight system is thought to have
come into use in England circa 1300. It was originally used for weighing wool.
In the early 14th century several other specialized weight systems were used,
including Troy weights (used by goldsmiths) and the weight system of the
Hanseatic League with a 16-ounce pound of 7200 grains and an 8-ounce mark.
However, the main weight system, used for coinage and for everyday use, was
based on the 12-ounce Saxon pound of 5400 grains, also known as the Tower
pound. From the 14th century until late 16th century, the avoirdupois pound was
also known as the wool pound or the avoirdupois wool pound. The basic unit of
weight in the avoirdupois system is the <b>grain</b>
(gr). The larger units are the ounce (oz) and the pound (lb).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Grain:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"> A grain is a unit of measurement of mass
that is nominally based upon the mass of a single seed of a cereal. From the
Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat and barley grains
were part of the legal definition of units of mass.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">Ounce</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">:</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">It </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">is
a unit of mass with several definitions, the most commonly used of which are
equal to approximately 28 grams. The ounce is used in a number of different
systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and
United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The
most commonly used ounces today are the international avoirdupois ounce and the
international troy ounce. The avoirdupois ounce is the most commonly used ounce
today. It is defined to be one sixteenth of an avoirdupois pound which is equal
to 7,000 grains. One ounce is therefore equal to 437.5 grains. On January 1,
2000, it ceased to be a legal unit of measure within the United Kingdom for
economic, health, safety or administrative purposes, but remains a familiar
unit, especially amongst older people. The troy ounce is equal to 480 grains.
It is<b> </b>equal to exactly 31.1034768 grams. There are 12 troy ounces
in the troy pound which is equal to 5760 grains. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pound:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The avoirdupois pound, also known as
the wool pound, first came into general use. It was initially equal to 6992
troy grains. It is also equal to 16 ounces. During the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, the avoirdupois pound was redefined as 7,000 grains.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
1878 Act said that contracts worded in terms of metric units would be deemed by
the courts to be made according to the Imperial units defined in the Act, and a
table of metric equivalents was supplied so that the Imperial equivalents could
be legally calculated. Thus defining, in UK law, metric units in terms of
Imperial ones. The equivalence for the pound is given as 1 lb =
453.59265 g or 0.45359 kg, which would make the kilogram weigh
approximately 2.2046213 lb. In 1883, it was determined jointly by the
Standards Department of the Board of Trade and the Bureau International that
0.4535924277 kg was a better approximation, and this figure, rounded to
0.45359243 kg was given legal status by an Order in Council in May 1898.
However in 1963 a new Weights and Measures Act reversed this relationship and
the pound was defined for the first time as a mass equal to 0.45359237 kg
to match the definition of the international pound agreed in 1959. To convert
from the avoirdupois system to the metric system, one must know the conversion
factors, which are 1 gr = 65 mg, 1 g = 15.4 gr, 1 oz = 28.4 g and 1 kg = 2.2 lb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Apothecary system: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The apothecary system is one of the
oldest systems of measurement used when calculating drug dosages. This system
originated in Greece, and eventually made its way to England where it was used
during the late 1600s, being brought by the colonist to America where it
evolved and became a modified system of trading measurements. While there has
been a definite trend towards using the metric system, some physicians still
use the apothecary system when prescribing certain medications such as aspirin
and digitalis. The basic unit of measurement used for weight in the apothecary
system is the grain (gr). One pound contains 12 ounces (</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math","serif"; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">℥</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">),
an ounce contains 8 drachms, and a drachm (ʒ) contains 3 scruples or 60 grains.
Care should be taken not to confuse the ounce and pound of the apothecary
system with their counterparts in the avoirdupois system. This exact form of
the system was used in the United Kingdom; in some of its former colonies it
survived well into the 20th century. The apothecaries' system of measures is a
similar system of volume units based on the fluid ounce. For a long time,
medical recipes were written in Latin, often using special symbols to denote
weights and measures. The pound, ounce and grain being identical to the avoirdupois
pound, ounce and grain. In the United Kingdom, a reform in 1824 made the avoirdupois
pound the primary weight unit but this had no effect on apothecaries' weights.
However, the Medicinal Act of 1858 apothecary system was completely abolished
in favor of the standard Avoirdupois system. In the United States, the
apothecary system remained official until it was abolished in 1971. This system
also contains units for fluid measurement. The basic unit of measurement used
for volume is the <b>minim</b> (m). A minim
is equal to the quantity of water in a drop that also weights 1 grain. A <b>fluid dram </b>is equivalent to 60 minims
and a <b>fluid ounce</b> is equal to eight
fluid drams and 16 fluid ounces in one <b>pint</b>;
two pints equals one <b>quart</b>; and,
there are four quarts in one <b>gallon</b>.</span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-47484237510133970952013-08-12T06:51:00.003-07:002013-08-13T01:20:45.720-07:00PHARMACOLOGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFgXqn95jYiPmZkaG9ynMoEqcf7CVMhZODh-_sXH1sVX5AZj5BJCyTnb_C84dvB6lD_gqddELyY6chd2pwaWM2kW9Kdxs5jt_8NTxsH1HwwFEvcEL3UTh4O8gxjyUA73dKmqPqmEMKHa0/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFgXqn95jYiPmZkaG9ynMoEqcf7CVMhZODh-_sXH1sVX5AZj5BJCyTnb_C84dvB6lD_gqddELyY6chd2pwaWM2kW9Kdxs5jt_8NTxsH1HwwFEvcEL3UTh4O8gxjyUA73dKmqPqmEMKHa0/s200/1.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It is the science of drugs </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">derived
from two Greek words: <i>Pharmakon </i>(the Greek word for drugs) and <i>logos </i>(the
Greek word for science). It is the study of the effects of chemicals on living
tissues</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">. The word drug refers to a dry substance and probably
reflects the use of herbs in early therapy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Broadly
defined, a drug is a chemical substance that can alter or influence the
responsiveness of a biological system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">According
to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) all drugs are chemicals, BUT, all
chemicals are not drugs. All drugs are
poisons, BUT, all poisons are not drugs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> FDA defines the chemical “a substance composed
of a combination of elements (electrons, protons, and neutrons)” and drug “a
chemical which is utilized for the diagnosis, prevention, cure or amelioration
of an unwanted health condition”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">According
to Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FDC) Act, the term “drug” means (A)
articles recognized in the official United States Pharmacopeia, official
Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">States,
or official National Formulary, or any supplement to any of them; and (B)
articles intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or
prevention of disease in man or other animals; and (C) articles (other than
food) intended to affect the structure or any function of the body of man or
other animals; and (D) articles intended for use as a component of any articles
specified in clause (A), (B), and (C), and “Food” means (1) articles used for
food or drink for man or other animals, (2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used
for components of any other such article.</span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63672800461450858.post-56373591813081807182013-08-12T07:07:00.002-07:002013-08-13T01:20:30.802-07:00THE HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDHmEw22WU8AoJJpvGEWVUPd_SsieQgqfozQx4yJ0KznaluKAYOGJKrMbou0u83SV22aLYx1jc20d0hiq7Nde687RZlq1EJ0k1TNjphMAUKh7f6iFhQplsD28b2HRDBR9YM34OPScYvo4/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="143" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDHmEw22WU8AoJJpvGEWVUPd_SsieQgqfozQx4yJ0KznaluKAYOGJKrMbou0u83SV22aLYx1jc20d0hiq7Nde687RZlq1EJ0k1TNjphMAUKh7f6iFhQplsD28b2HRDBR9YM34OPScYvo4/s200/2.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Ancient civilizations discovered that
extracts from plants, animals, and minerals had medicinal effects on body tissue.
These discoveries became the foundation of empirical pharmacology. It was not
until the late 1800s that developments in the sciences of physiology, organic
chemistry, and biochemistry provided the scientific approach that is used in
today’s pharmacology.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> Pharmacology is one of the pillars of the
drug discovery process. While the medicinal/organic chemist may create the
candidate compound (sometimes referred to as a new chemical entity, NCE), it is
the pharmacologist, who is responsible for testing it for pharmacological
activity. An NCE is eventually investigated by several other groups of
scientists (toxicologists, microbiologists, and clinicians) if it has
demonstrated a potential therapeutic effect.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The
key figure in the development of pharmacology was Rudolph Buchheim (1820
–1879), a German pharmacologist who was born in Bautzen. In 1845 he earned his
doctorate from the University of Leipzig and soon after became a professor at
the University of Dorpat. While at Dorpat he created the first pharmacological
institute. In 1867 he became professor of pharmacology and toxicology at the
University of Giessen. Buchheim is remembered for his pioneer work in
experimental pharmacology. He was instrumental in turning pharmacology from an
empirical study of medicine into an exact science. He introduced the bioassay
to pharmacology, and created a methodology for determining the quantative and
medical aspects of chemical substances. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Then Oswald
Schmiedeberg (1838–1921) obtained his medical doctorate in 1866 with a thesis
on the measurement of chloroform in blood. He worked at the University of
Dorpat in Hungary under Rudolph Buchheim. After three years he became professor
at the University of Strasbourg and head of an institute of pharmacology. In
1878 he published the classic text Outline of Pharmacology. In his 46 years at
Strasbourg, Schmiedeberg he, trained a number of preeminent scientists who
populated the great centers of scientific learning throughout many countries. One
of these was John Jacob Abel. He founded and chaired the first department of
pharmacology in the United States at the University of Michigan. In 1893, In
1897 he went on to chair the pharmacology department at Johns Hopkins
University. Abel also co-founded the Journal of Biological Chemistry with
Christian Archibald Herter in 1905 and the Journal of Pharmacology and
Experimental Therapeutics in 1909. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Abel
was one of the many students of Oswald Schmiederberg who founded pharmacology
departments all over the world including Genoa, Heidelberg, Berlin, Padua,
Japan, Edinburgh, and the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10849095896759763425noreply@blogger.com0